.11/7 



PE 1109 
.H17 
1834 
Copy 1 



^ 



NEW GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



Si quid novi«ti rectius istls, . 
Candid08 hnpcrti: ei non, his utere mecurn.-— Horace. 



SECOND EDITION, 

CORRECTED, KXLARGEt^ AND PREPARKD TOB. USE IN ACADEMIES 



AND SCHOOLS. 




BOSTON: 
RUSS6LL, ODIORNE, & METC.LF. 

1834. 



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4-0, 



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^tbvavy af <i)^x<^xti$. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




^EW GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE 



.\ 


Si quid novisti rectius istis, 
Candidas imperti: si non, his utere mecum. 

Horace, 

^-.■1. ' Via 


t 

IDEMIES 


ORREC 


SECOND EDITION, 

rED, ENLARGED, AND PREPARED FOR USE IN ACj 

AND SCHOOLS. 




BOSTON: 

RUSSELL, ODIORNE, AND METCALF. 

1834. 



Entered accoraing to the'Ac^f Congress, in the year one thousand a^ht hundred ' ^ 
and thirty-one by ColiTns & Hankay, in the Clerk's Office of the Southern 
District of New York. 






Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1834, 

by Russell, Odiorne, and Metcalf, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



^/2/^^ 



CAMBRIDGE : 
PKIKTED BT MANSON, BMERSOK, AND GRANT. 



PREFACE 



By circumstances, which need not be stated, the attention 
of the author was recently attracted to English grammar. 
On examining the grammars in common use, he discovered 
in all of them what seemed to him to be errors ; and he 
thought that, by devoting a few of his leisure hours to the 
investigation of the subject, he might derive pleasure and 
advantage from the employment, and might perhaps render 
an acceptable service to English literature. 

Perceiving that the leading rules and principles found in 
modern grammars were derived from old ones, and believing 
that the early grammarians copied too closely from the gram- 
mars of other languages, particularly the Latin, then the only 
language used by the learned, he has, in sketching the out- 
line of this, taken no other whatever for his guide, but has 
sought for rules and principles in the best specimens of Eng- 
lish composition, in the common and ordinary use of words, 
and in their present and obvious import. 

From the course pursued, it has resulted, that this gram- 
mar differs from most others in several particulars. First 
(and least important,) It arranges certain words, some usually 
called articles and others pronouns, in the class of adjectives : 
— Second, It denies that the auxiliaries, could, might, should, 
and would usually refer to past time, in other words, that 
they are signs of a past tense : — Third, It denies that the 
Potential mode has more than two tenses : — Fourth, It 
rejects the Subjunctive mode : — Fifth, It substitutes for it, 
or rather it recognises, a Conditional mode : — Sixths it ap- 



IV preface:. 

plies new names to several of the tenses : — Seventh^ Reject- 
ing the passive as a class of verbs, it exhibits the English 
verb conjugated in three different ways : — Eighth, The 
Syntax is simplified, considerably shortened, and compiled 
without reference to the grammar or construction of any 
other language. Of these particulars, the second is most im~ 
portant. If that is correct,, the third, fourth, and fifth must be 
correct also. 

These deviations from rules and principles generally re- 
ceived as correct will doubtless be attributed by many to the 
love of innovation ; and many will feel a natural reluctance to 
admit that what they have been taught, and have themselves 
taught, is erroneous. But no candid critic will permit his 
preconceived opinions to hurry him to a decision ; he will 
neither condemn nor approve until he shall have thoroughly 
examined and patiently inquired whether, in each of the 
several foregoing particulars, this grammar is correct or not. 
The notes at the end of the book may afford some assistance 
to any one disposed to make the inquiry. 

But admitting that it is correct, and that others are erro- 
neous, in all these particulars, does this, the reader may 
inquire, give it any practical superiority 1 Are the errors of 
sufficient importance to require correction ? We have had 
able and successful teachers, learned and elegant writers, 
who never used nor studied any English grammar, but Lowth's 
or Murray's. — In reply, it may be observed that, to point out 
the particular effects upon style of the alterations proposed ; 
to show how they would render it more regular, precise, and 
perspicuous, though not difficult, must be superfluous. It is 
sufficient to say that, in teaching any art or science, it cannot 
be indifferent whether the fundamental rules and principles 
inculcated are true or false ; that from truth, whether in 
morals or science, none but good — from error, none but evil, 
consequences can flow; that whatever is correct must neces- 
sarily be simple, free from inconsistencies and absurdities, and 
of easy acquisition ; and that, by regarding only the peculiar 
idiom and character of a language, in ascertaining and ad- 
justing its rules and principles, it will, thus released from 
foreign fetters, be left free to advance to the highest degree 
of excellence of which it is susceptible. And it may also be 
observed that our most elegant writers learned the grammar 
of their language, not so much from Lowth or Murray, as 
from studying the purest specimens of English composition ; 
from attending carefully to the meaning and force of words.; 



PREFACE. V 

and from consulting and regarding more that indefinable 
sense of propriety which constitutes good taste, than the pre- 
cepts of their instructors. Indeed, of their disregard of them, 
almost every page of their writings bears witness. It is to 
these models of composition, as has before been observed, that 
particular regard has been paid in ascertaining the rules and 
principles of the language. 

The grammar of our language has received too little atten- 
tion from men engaged in literary pursuits. Those who have 
written on the subject, with the exception of Tooke and 
Webster, have paid too much regard to ancient, and too little 
to cotemporary and cognate languages — and too little also 
to the language itself as it is spoken and written. It is not a 
subject unworthy the attention of men who have attained an 
elevated rank as scholars. It has, on the contrary, high 
claims upon those who feel an attachment to elegant litera- 
ture, and a solicitude for the improvement of the medium by 
which so much pleasure and instruction is imparted. The 
learned of France and Italy, by the attention which they have 
devoted to this branch of literature, have acquired for their 
respective languages a high reputation ; would our own 
scholars but consider the subject worthy their attention, they 
might easily vindicate the claim of the English to an equality 
at least with either. 

This grammar, though smaller than most others, contains, 
it is believed, all that is necessary for a student to know in 
regard to etymology and syntax. That others are larger may 
be attributed, in some degree, to the prevalent and injurious 
error that the grammar of our language is as complex as that 
of others ; that it is intricate, difficult, and abstruse ; and that 
minute explanations, many divisions, and a multiplicity of 
rules are necessary to enable the learner to understand it. 
It is, in truth, much more simple, and has fewer anomalies, 
than any other. The incumbrance of inflection being in a 
great degree dispensed with, but little more is necessary than 
to acquire an accurate knowledge of the meaning, force, and 
manner of use of the words which compose the language, 
especially the auxiliaries, to become master of its grammar. 
This knowledge can be acquired only by the constant and 
habitual use of it ; and foreigners may therefore be pardoned 
for complaining of the difficulty they meet with in learning 
and speaking it. But let any one familiar with it compare its 
excellencies and defects with the excellencies and defects of 
others, and he will be convinced that it is inferior to none. 



VI PREFACE. 

and that it exhibits unequivocal evidence of being formed by 
a thinking people, accustomed to analyze their thoughts, and 
in a period distinguished beyond all others for the advance- 
ment of reason and all the intellectual faculties. Certainly 
no language was ever formed under more favorable auspices. 
Whether this little book is well devised and adapted for 
use in schools, instructers must decide. To exhibit the true 
principles of the language has been the object to which the 
author has principally directed his attention. He believes, 
however, that they will find it well adapted for that purpose, 
a capable and experienced instructer having assisted in 
preparing this edition for the press. From the use of a few 
terms to which they have not been accustomed, the first im- 
pression upon their minds will doubtless, in most cases, be 
unfavorable ; but as the author believes that the appellations 
which have been rejected are very inappropriate, and are real 
impediments in the way of the scholar ; and that those which 
he proposes are appropriate, descriptive, and will assist him 
in his progress, he cannot do otherwise than present them 
for consideration and trial. 






INDEX 



Active Conjugation, 30. 

Adjective, 2. Derivation of the name, 13. Definition, 13. Two kinds 

of, 14. Often used as nouns, 14, 74. Sometimes have the sign 

of the possessive case, 14. Comparison of, 15. Syntax of, 67* 
Mverh, 2, 49. Syntax of, 68. 
Arrangement, 58, 68. 
Article, 16, 98. 
Auxiliaries, 18. Ellipsis of, 55. Table of, 104. The use of them a 

distinguishing characteristic of the language, 106, 108. Often 

omitted by the poets, 109. 
Be, used as an auxiliary, 20. Remarks on, and conjugation of, 34. Its 

use after conjunctions regulated entirely by custom, 35, 111. 
Can, May, and Must, auxiliaries, 18. Signs of the potential mode, 23. 

The time they express, 28. 
Capital letters, use of, 97. 
Classification of Words, 1, 120. 
Conditional Mode. 22. Signs of, 23, 104. Has two tenses, 27. Note 

upon, 105. 
Conjugation, 29. Three forms of, 30. 
Conjunctions, 3, 52. Do not govern verbs, 58. And see note on the 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Could, Might, Should, and Would, auxiliaries, 19. Signs of the Con- 
ditional Mode, 23, 104. The time they denote, 26, 28. Note 

upon, 99. 
Do, used as an auxiliary, 20. Verbs conjugated by the help of, 37. 
Ellipsis, 53. Of auxiliaries has led to the supposition that the English 

language has a subjunctive mode, 107, 109. 
Imperative Mode, 23. Has one tense, 29. 
Indefinite Active Conjugation, 30, 39. 
Indicative Mode, 22. Has six tenses, 24. 
Infinitive Mode. 22. Sign of, 22, 104. Has two tenses, 24. Ellipsis of 

sign of, 56. 
Interjection, 3, 53. 
Irregular Verbs, 44. 

Mode, definition of, 22. Table of Modes, 104. 
JVoun, 2, 3. Syntax of, 59, 64, 65, 66. 
Ought, remarks on, 123. 

Passive Verb, not a class, but a form of the verb, 18, 30, 42, 122. 
Parsing, what, 58. Directions for, 70. Exercises in, 75. 
Participle, three kinds of, 21. Syntax of, 65. 



Vlll INDEX. 

Potential Mode, 22. Signs of, 23, 104. Has but two tenses, 27, 105. 

Preposition, 3, 51, Syntax of, QQ. 

Pronoun, 2, ]6. Syntax of, 60, 61, 63. Possessive of, 121. 

Punctuation, 91. 

Signs of Tenses, 18, 104. 

Shall, auxiliary, 19, 20. Change of termination, 21. 

Subjunctive Mode, not inserted in the list of Modes, 22. Has no 
peculiar sign or auxiliary, !I04. Not derived from the Saxon, 
108. Not necessary, 108. Tends to render style ambiguous, 109. 
Differs from indicative in only two persons of one tense, 109. 
Which diiference arises from the ellipsis of an auxiliary, 109. 
Had its origin with the old English poets, 109. Not always 
used by good writers, 110. Quotation fiom Burke, 111. Be 
and loerc not subjunctive. 111. Different theories of the subjunc- 
tive mode. 111. Absence of personal terminations not required 
to express doubt, &c. 112. Mode does not depend upon other 
words, 22, 112. The English has no mode invariably subjunc- 
tive, 113. J/" never used in a subjunctive clause, 113. The po- 
tential of the English corresponds with the subjunctive of other 
languages, 113. 

Syntax, 58. Violations of, 85. 

Tense, Derivative, 23. Definition, 23. Three principal tenses, 23. 
The several tenses described, 24-28. Note on the names of 
the tenses, 115. Use of the tenses, 69, 118. 

Were, not strictly a part of the verb, to be, 34, 111. Not the subjunc- 
tive form of that verb. 111. 

IFifZZ, used as an auxiliary, 20. Change of termination, 21. 

Verb, 2. Derivation of the name, 17. Two kinds of, 17. Transitive 
verb, 18. Intransitive verb, 18. The modification called a 
passive verb, 18, 122. Syntax of, 60, 64. 



NEW GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



Grammar is the art of speaking and writing a language 
with verbal propriety. 

It is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters or spelling ; Etymology 
of words ; Syntax of sentences ; Prosody of the harmony 
of composition, and applies chiefly to poetry. 

In the subsequent pages Etymology and Syntax only 
will be treated of. 



PART I. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



It belongs to this part of grammar to show into how 
many kinds or classes the words of a language may be 
divided ; the nature or properties of the words of each 
class ; and the modifications or changes which they may 
admit. 

There are, in the English language, eight different 
kinds or classes of words, commonly called Parts of Speech ; 
namely, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 
1 



'a ETYMOLOGY. 

1. A Noun is the name of any person, object or thing 
which can be perceived by any of the senses, or can be 
made the subject of conversation : thus, Philadelphia is 
the name of a place ; Bonaparte is the name of a man ; 
iron is the name of a metal ; dog is the name of a kind 
of animals ; judgment is the name of a faculty of the 
mind ; temperance is the name of a virtue. The follow- 
ing words are nouns : 



George, 


tree, 


soul. 


success, 


Smith, 


chair, 


truth. 


vacancy. 


Nile, 


stone. 


glory. 


nothing. 


Troy, 


fire, 


virtue, 


defect. 



2. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; of 
this class of words, there are but few in the language, and 
the principal are, /, thou, he, she, it, who, 

3. Adjectives are used to express the quality of the 
things which are spoken of when nouns are used, or to de- 
scribe or point them out ; and they are always connected 
with some noun or pronoun expressed or understood : as 
tall tree ; hard stone ; a soul ; tenth chair ; true glory. 
The following words are adjectives : 



good. 


great, 


this. 


one. 


bad. 


small. 


that. 


five, 


beautiful, 


white, 


many, 


ninth, 


ugly, 


sweet. 


several, 


fiftieth. 



4. We use a Verb when we wish to say that any per- 
son or thing is or exists, does any thing or suffers ; as, 
God is good ; the Lord liveth ; horses run ; trees grow '; 
the farmer hoes corn, and mows grass ; criminals are pun- 
ished. The following words are verbs : 



be, 


sing, 


think. 


die. 


exist, 


catch. 


teach. 


endure, 


live. 


ride. 


strike, 


sustain, 


enjoy, 


read. 


go, 


receive. 



5. Adverbs describe the manner in which actions are 
done ; in other words, they modify the meaning of verbs ; 



NOUNS. d 

as, horses run swiftly ; she sings charmingly ; thus saith 
the Lord. They are also used to modify the meaning of 
adjectives and other adverbs, to express time, &c. The 
following words are adverbs : 

discreetly, twice, there, yes, 

truly, often, here, no, 

humbly, soon, therefore, not, 

artfully, again, thereby, never. 

6. A Preposition expresses the relation between two 
or more words, or between the ideas which the words are 
used to express : as, the heavens are above the earth ; 
the book lies on the table ; the Gospel was preached to 
the Gentiles. 

7. A Conjunction joins words and sentences together : 
as, trees and animals live and grow ; to desert friends, or 
to do injustice to enemies, is mean as well as wicked. 

8. An Interjection is a word or sound expressing pas- 
sion or emotion : as, oh, alas, fie, poh. 

All the parts of speech are contained in the following 
paragraph. 

3 1 43 3.1 782 

Delightful hopes flatter the young man ; but, alas, he 

5 5 4 3 16 1 

soon painfully experiences the deceitfulness of hope. 

Many words belong sometimes to one class and some- 
times to another ; thus fear may be used as a noun and a 
verb ; and further may be used as an adjective, a verb, 
and an adverb. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF NOUNS. 



Noun is from the Latin word nomen, signifying name. 
A noun is the name of any thing which exists, or of 
which we caii have an idea: — Boston, man, tree, the 



4 NOUNS. 

soul, thought ; the beginning of the world ; he waited for 
the moving of the waters. 

Nouns are either Proper or Common. 

Proper nouns are the names appropriated to individu- 
als, or single objects : — George, Vermont, Hudson, Joio- 
ler, the horse, Eclipse. 

Common nouns are the names of sorts or species, and 
are equally applicable to any individual of the sort or spe- 
cies : — animal, river, tree, dog, virtue. 

In the class of common nouns are comprised a large num- 
ber called, by some grammarians, Abstract Nouns. They 
are the names of abstract qualities, or of objects which can 
be contemplated only by the mind ; as, goodness, reli- 
gion, opinion, devotion, faith, he. 

Proper nouns, when used to denote a class, become 
common nouns: — he is the Washins-ton of the asie : 
Charles the Twelfth, that Ccesar of the north. 

A common noun, when used as the name of an indi- 
vidual, becomes a proper noun : — Mr. Carpenter is a 
baker ; the sloop. Eagle. 

To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and Case. 

PERSON. 

There are three persons : first, second, and thu'd. 
Nouns are of the first person when used to designate the 
person speaking or writing : — "I, Paul, write to thee," 
&;c. ; they are of the second person when used to desig- 
nate the person addressed ; — " child of mortality, whence 
comest thou ; " and they are of the third person when they 
designate the person or thing spoken of: — "the tree is 
known by its fruit ; " " memory is a faculty of the mind.^^ 
Nouns are seldom used in the first or second person. 

GENDER. 

Gender has reference to sex ; and as there are but two 
sexes, the male and the female, all the nouns, in some 
languages, are considered as belonging either to the mas- 
culine or the feminine gender. But there being many ob- 
jects or things without sex, the names of these, in some 



NOUNS. O 

Other languages, are considered as belonging to the neu- 
ter (Latin for neither) gender ; and in most languages, 
the different genders of nouns are distinguished by differ- 
ent terminations. The mode of distinguishing the gen- 
der of nouns by changing their terminations, or of class- 
ing them according to their terminations, does not pre- 
vail, to any great extent, in the English language ; of 
course, the same word (friend, for instance) is often ap- 
plied indifferently, and without modification, to persons or 
beings who belong to one or the other of the two sexes, 
or to both ; and hence arises the propriety, if not neces- 
sity, of a fourth gender, which has been properly denomi- 
nated the common gender. 

There are, therefore, in English grammar, four gen- 
ders — the Masculine, the Feminine, the Neuter, and the 
Common. 

Nouns designating males are of the masculine gender : 
— man, bull, gander. 

Nouns designating females are of the feminine gender: 
—'Woman, coiv, goose. 

Nouns designating objects or things without sex are of 
the neuter gender: — field, star, thought, joy. 

Nouns designating persons or beings who belong to one 
or the other sex, but not distinguishing the sex, are of 
the common gender : — parent, child, scholar, elephant^ 
bird, cattle, sheep. 

Nouns of the neuter gender are sometimes, by a figure 
of speech, used in the masculine or feminine gender. We 
say of the sun, he is setting ; and of a ship, she sails well. 

The feminine gender is distinguished from the mascu- 
line in three different modes, viz. 

1. By different words : 



lASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Sloven, 


Slut. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Friar, 


Nun. 
1* 


Wizard, 


Witch. 



NOUNS. 



2. By difference of termination. 



Abbot, 


Abbess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Shepherd, 


Shepherdess. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Widower, 


Widow. 



And in the case of many other words, the feminine is 
distinguished from the mascuhne by the addition of ess. 



3. By prefixing a word indicative of sex : 



A cock-sparrow, 
A man-servant, 
A he-bear, 
A male-child, 



A hen-sparrow. 
A maid-servant. 
A she-bear. 
A female-child. 



NUMBER. 

Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. 
The singular expresses one object: — chair, table. The 
plural expresses more objects than one : — chairs, tables. 

The plural number is generally denoted by adding s to 
the singular : — dove, doves ; a song, ten songs. 

But when the singular ends in x, ss, s, sh, or ch sound- 
ed as in church, the plural is formed by adding es : — 
fox, foxes ; lass, lasses ; rebus, rebuses ; sash, sashes ; 
torch, torches ; and sometimes when the singular ends in 
o, as hero, heroes. 

In some instances, when the singular ends in /or fe, 
those letters are changed into ves : — ■ calf, calves ; self, 
selves ; life, lives. 

When the singular ends in y, with a consonant before 
it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies : — vanity, 
vanities ; body, bodies. But generally, when y has a 
vowel before it, s only is added : — valley, valleys ; delay, 
delays. 

Some nouns are used only in the plural : — ashes, 
riches, scissors, victuals, politics, mathematics, &z;c. 

Some nouns are used only in the singular: — wheat, 
hemp, pitch, pride, wine, oil, &c. A portion of these. 



NOUNS. 7 

however, admit the plural termination, when different 
kinds are spoken of : — • " The 2vines of France are better 
than those of Germany." 

Some nouns are the same in both numbers : — deer, 
sheep, swine, &:c. 

News is singular ; and custom has sanctioned the use 
oi means as singular as well as plural. 

The following table comprises words which form their 
plural irregularly : 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Man, Men. 


Goose, 


Geese. 


Woman, Women. 


Mouse, 


Mice. 


Ox, Oxen. 


Louse, 


Lice. 


Foot, Feet. 


Die, 


Dice. 


Tooth, Teeth. 


Penny, 


Pence. 


The following are 


from ancient languages : 


Axis, Axes. 


Stratum, 


Strata. 


Antithesis, . Antitheses. 


Phenomenon, 


Phenomena 


Basis, Bases. 


Arcanum, 


Arcana. 


Crisis, Crises. 


Genus, 


Genera. 


Ellipsis, ElHpses. 


Radius, 


Radii. 


Automaton, Automata. 


Magus, 


Magi. 



When the pieces of coin are spoken of, penny becomes 
"pennies in the plural : — The English mint can coin one 
hundred pennies per minute. 

CASE. 



Case signifies the state of the noun, its relation to other 
words, or its position in regard to them. 

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, the Posses- 
sive, and the Objective. 

The Nominative is the original state of the noun, and 
simply expresses the name of the person or thing which 
acts, exists, or suffers : — John strikes Peter ; the Lord 
liveth ; Thomas was punished. 



8 NOUNS. 

The Possessive expresses property or fitness, and is 
generally distinguished by the addition of an apostrophe 
and the letter 5 ; — the boy^s hat ; viriut's reward ; wo- 
men's shoes. But when the plural ends in 5, and some- 
times when the nominative singular ends in ss, an apostro- 
phe only is added : — boys' hats ; for righteousness' sake. 

In expressions like the following, the use of the pos- 
sessive case has been condemned as inelegant if not im- 
proper : — " This is a book of my brother's." This fonn 
of expression had its origin when one w-as used where 
both a and one are now — " This is one (or ane) book 
of my brother's (books.) At this day, " this is one of 
my brother's books " w^ould be a more elegant expres- 
sion. 

Two nouns in the possessive case are sometimes prop- 
erly used one after the other : '' Peter's wife's mother 
lay sick of a fever." 

When one noun follows another, the latter being added 
to describe or define the former, and the two being con- 
nected by the preposition of, the sign of the possessive 
case is affixed to the latter only : " The king of Spain's 
revenue ; the Savioiu' of the world's exhortations ; the 
star of hope's last beam." In these and like cases, the two 
nouns constitute but one descriptive appellation. 

In such expressions as the following, the sign of the 
possessive case is affixed to the last noun only : — King 
George's crown ; for David my servant's sake. 

Whenever the possessive case sounds unpleasantly, it 
may be changed into the objective by using the preposi- 
tion 0/ before it : — Such was the king's and the queen's 
pleasure — such was the pleasure of the king and the 
queen. 

The Objective case does not differ in spelling from the 
nominative. A noun is said to be in this case when it 
follows, or expresses the object of, a verb, or follows a 
preposition : — John strikes Peter ; the sun enlightens the 
earth; fishes live in water; birds fly through .the air. 
Here the verbs strikes and enlightens, and the preposi- 
tions in and through, are said to govern the following 
nouns j that is, to place them in the objective case. 



NOUNS. 



To decline a noun is to recite its various cases. Eng- 
lish nouns are thus declined : 



SINGULAR. 

Norn. Poss. Obj, 

George, George's, George. 

Stone, Stone's, Stone. 

Lad, Lad's, Lad. 

Lass, Lass's, Lass. 



PLURAL. 

Nom. Poss. Ohj. 

Georges, Georges', Georges. 

Stones, Stones', Stones. 

Lads, Lads', Lads. 

Lasses, Lasses', Lasses. 



Questions on the Noun. 

Which words in the following sentences are nouns! 
Which are j/roper nouns 1 Which are common nouns 1 
In ivhat number, person, and gender is each 1 Which 
are in the possessive case 1 

Vesuvius is a lofty mountain. 

Bonaparte was emperor of France. 

Burke was the Cicero of England. 

Captain Baker commands the frigate, Constellation. 

I, John Doe, grant to thee, Richard Roe, my house 
and land in Brooklyn. 

Kings and queens are seldom happy. 

Dogs are distinguished for their fidelity to their mas- 
ters. 

The children of our uncles and aunts are our cousins. 

Aim at excellence, and you will surpass mediocrity ; 
aim at mediocrity, and you will fall short of it. 

Cherish benevolent affections, and your reward will be 
the highest of earthly blessings — serenity of temper. 

John's book was found in his brother's desk. 

For David my servant's sake. 

He spent his father-in-law's property. 



10 



PRONOUNS. 



CHAPTER II. 



OF PRONOUNS. 



The word Pronoun is formed from two Latin words ; 
'pro J for, and nomen, name or noun. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of, or as a substi- 
tute for, a noun, when repetition would be inelegant : — 
"The Lord is great, and he is also good ; Maria reads 
well, but she cannot write." A pronoun is also sometimes 
used as a substitute for a sentence : — "I am required," 
said lord Fitzgerald, in the Irish parliament, " to make an 
acknowledgment for having said that the king's ministers 
are the worst enemies the king has. I said so, it is true, 
and I am sorry for zV." 

Pronouns are of two kinds, Personal Pronouns and Ad- 
jective Pronouns ; and, like nouns, they have person, gen- 
der, number, and case. 

Personal pronouns are such as are used as substitutes 
for nouns designating persons, and are J, thou, he,- she, 
who. It is sometimes called a personal pronoun, but is 
generally used as a substitute for the names of things. 

/ is of the first person, thou of the second person, and 
he, she, it, of the third person ; who is of the first, sec- 
ond, and third persons. 

/ and thou are used in the masculine and feminine gen- 
der : he is of the masculine gender ; she is of the femi- 
nine gender ; it is of the neuter gender ; who is of the 
masculine and feminine gender. 

The foregoing pronouns are varied to denote number 
and case, and are thus declined : 





SINGULAR. 


JVbm, 


Poss. 


06/. 


I, 


Mine, 


Me. 


Thou, 


Thine, 


Thee. 


He, 


His, 


Him. 


She, 


Hers, 


Her, 


It, 




It, 


Who, 


Whose, 


Whom, 



JVom. 



PLURAL. 

Poss. 



Obj. 



We, Ours, Us, 

Ye or you, Yours, You. 

They, Theirs, Them. 

They, Theirs, Them. 

They, Theirs, Them. 

Who, Whose, Whom. 



PRONOUNS. 11 

His the possessive of he, and his, a defining adjective, 
are spelled alike. My and thy, defining adjectives, are 
sometimes, especially when followed by words beginning 
with vowels, spelled like the possessives of I and thou — 
mine, thine. 

Instead of thou, you is invariably used in the second 
person singular, except in solemn style ; we do not say, 
thou didst it, but you did it. Ye is not used except in 
solemn style. We is used instead of / by kings and edi- 
tors of newspapers. 

Adjective pronouns are words partaking of the nature 
of pronouns and adjectives ; and all of them are some- 
times used as adjectives. They are this, that, whaty 
which, both, other, none, one, and perhaps some others. 

The foregoing words are pronouns when used as sub- 
stitutes for nouns, as in the following phrases : — " Of wealth 
and poverty, it may be said, that both are temptations ; 
that tends to excite pride, this discontent. This is what 
I wanted. This is the tree luhich produces no finit. Ye 
shall lie down, and none shall make you afraid. I have 
called my mighty ones.^^ 

The same words are adjectives when used to qualify or 
define nouns expressed or understood : — " What man is 
that (man) ? What tree did you speak of? I will point 
out which tree I spoke of ; that tree yonder. TTiis 
(thought) is a sublime thought. Who is of both num- 
bers." 

It is not improbable that, in the infancy of language, 
all pronouns were defining adjectives ; and that, when 
used, the nouns which they defined, and now stand for, 
were also used. 

Who, which, and that are called Relative Pronouns 
when they relate to a word or phrase going before, which 
is thence called the Antecedent : — " He, who runs, may 
read ; the light ivhich shineth in darkness ; the man is 
wise that avoids contention." What sometimes includes 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is, at the same 
time, the object of one verb and the nominative of an- 
other: — " One man admires what displeases another." It 
is synonymous with that which, or the thing which. That, 



12 PRONOUNS. 

when used as a relative, is sometimes plural : — " Let states 
that aim at greatness," &£c. Who sometimes includes the 
antecedent and the relative, especially in poetry. 

Which and that were formerly much used as personal 
pronouns ; who is now generally used instead of both of 
them, and which is used exclusively in the neuter gender, 
except in interrogative phrases : — as, which of the two 
men did it ? 

Ever and soever are sometimes added to ivho, which, 
and what, making whoever, whosoever, &£c. Each of 
these compound pronouns may be used as the nomina- 
tive to two verbs : — ivhoever sins, shall be punished ; 
whatever is done, should be done quickly ; but they are 
seldom used in modern style. 

The noun self, is sometimes added to the defining ad- 
jectives my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, and one, 
making myself, ourselves, &ic. His, its, and their have, 
however, been changed by use into him, it, and them, 
making himself, itself, and themselves ; and these words, 
when so formed, are used in the nominative as well as 
the objective case. This is evidently a departure from 
grammatical propriety, but has been sanctioned by long 
and invariable usage. All these compound words are 
used as reciprocal pronouns, and to express emphasis : — 
I injured myself; they injured themselves : he himself d^d 
it ; they came themselves. 

It is a word of great universahty, and may be used in 
apposition with any of the pronouns, singular or plural, 
and with almost every noun in the language: — it \s I; 
it was you ; it was she ; it w^as they ; who was it 1 It 
is the Lord who hath done this ; it is cold to-day. 

It sometimes stands as the representative of a sentence, 
or part of a sentence : — ^^ It is disagreeable to hear pro- 
fane language ; " " New- York, it is well kno\^Ti, is a large 
city ;" here, it refers to New-Yorlc is a large city ; and 
the natural order of the words would be, New- York is a 
large city, it is well known. 

Some grammarians class the following words among 
pronouns : — each, every, either, many, few, all, some, 
several, such, same, any, &tc. All of these are, however, 



ADJECTIVES. 13 

generally used as adjectives, and they are, perhaps, never 
used except to define nouns expressed or understood. 

Such of the adjective pronouns as are varied to express 
number and case, are thus declined: 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL 




Norn. Poss. Obj. 


Norn. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


Which, Whose, Which. 
Whichever, Whosever, Whichever. 
Other, Other's, Other. 
One, One's, One. 


Which, 
Whichever, 
Others, 
Ones, 


Whose, 
Whosever, 
Others', 
Ones', 


Which. 
Whichever 
Others. 
Ones. 



Questions on the Pronoun. 

Which words in the following sentences are Pronouns 1 
In what number, person, gender, and case is each 1 

I saw him, but he did not speak to me. 
That book is theirs, but this is yours. 
This pen is mine, that is thine, and the other is hers. 
They gave thee instruction, therefore respect them. 
The river which you crossed was the Ohio ; it is a 
beautifijil river. 

The tree that grows rapidly decays soon. 
She, whom you saw yesterday, is gone. 
We repeated to her what you told us. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjective is from the two Latin words, ad, to, and y«ceo, 
to place, which, united, signify added to, oy placed near to. 

An adjective is a word added to, or placed near to, a 
noun, and qualifies or defines it. It may be used also to 
modify the meaning of another adjective. 

As an adjective, however, is seldom used without being, 
either immediately or by the intervention of another ad- 
2 



14 ADJECTIVES. 

jective, connected wath a noun expressed or understood, 
the name adnoun is preferred, by some grammarians, to 
adjective. 

Adjectives are of two kinds ; Qualifying Adjectives, and 
Defining Adjectives. 

Qualifying adjectives are such words as express a qual- 
ity of the object or thing, of which the noun is the name : 
— a good man ; a beautiful rose ; a white horse. Here 
the adjectives good, beautiful, and white, express qualities 
of the man, rose, and horse ; and they are qualities which 
belong to the object named. 

Defining adjectives are such words as define, specify, 
limit, or extend the meaning of the nouns to which they 
belono^, or describe circumstances relating to them : — that 
man ; the men ; one man ; ten men ; the tenth man ; few 
men ; many men ; all men ; which man ; the north and 
south poles ; my hat ; your hat ; other hats ; every hat ; 
no hat ; each hat ; a hat ; an apple. 

The two kinds of adjectives are not divided firom each 
other by a line plainly and distinctly marked ; but a mis- 
take^ by the learner, in this respect, would lead to no 
other error. Some defining adjectives convey only a sin- 
gular import: — a, each, every, either, neither, one, 
tenth, &ic. Some convey only a plural import : — many, 
several, few, two, five, &c. 

Some defining adjectives express possession : — -my, thy, 
his, her, its, our, your, their. In using his, her, and its, re- 
gard must be had to the gender, and in using our, your, 
and their, to the number, of the nouns or pronouns to 
which they respectively relate or refer, and not to the 
gender or number of the nouns which they specify or 
define : — • the father instructed his daughter ; the troops 
obeyed their commander. 

Many adjectives are often used as nouns, especially 
when the expression is intended to be general or indefi- 
nite ; — The good are not always happy ; the iviclced flee 
when no man pursueth. In such cases, they usually con- 
vey a plural import ; and sometimes have the sign of the 
possessive case affixed : — '^ I will not destroy it for ten''s 
sake." 



ADJECTIVES, 



15 



The spelling of adjectives is not varied to express num- 
ber, with the exception of this and that, which are in the 
plural these and those. 

COMPARISON. 

In order to express different degrees of the same qual- 
ity, the spelling of adjectives is sometimes varied. This 
is called the Comparison of Adjectives. 

Adjectives have a Positive state, and a Comparative 
and a Superlative degree. 

The positive state is the original state or form of the 
word: — great, short. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in signification : ■ — greater, shorter. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive 
to the highest or lowest degree r — greatest, shortest. 

The comparative is formed by adding r or er to the 
positive ; the superlative by adding st or est. 

But most adjectives of more than one syllable, are 
compared by placing more or less before the positive to 
form the comparative degree, and most and least before 
the positive to form the superlative degree. 

The following table represents several adjectives com- 
pared : 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


White, 


Whiter, 


Whitest. 


Humble, 


Humbler, 


Humblest. 


Great, 


Greater, 


Greatest. 


Small, 


Smaller, 


Smallest. 


Learned, 


More learned. 


Most learned. 


Beautiful, 


Less beautiful, 


Least beautiful 



The superlative is sometimes formed by placing most at 
the end : — foremost, uppermost, undermost. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly : 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, Better, Best. 

Bad, Worse, Worst. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Many, More, Most. 

Much, More, Most. 



16 ADJECTIVES. 

Elder is sometimes used as the comparative, and eldest 
as the superlative, of old. 

When an adjective ends in y, the y is changed into i, 
in the comparative and superlative degrees : as dry, drier, 
driest. 

The termination ish, when added to adjectives, ex- 
presses quality in a diminished degree : — green, greenish. 
When added to nouns, it converts them into adjectives : — 
wasp, waspish ; child, childish. 

Many adjectives do not admit of comparison : — all, 
round, square, any, ten, twentieth, and many more. 

A noun placed before another noun assumes the nature 
of an adjective : — sea water, coim field, fish oil. They 
are frequently united by a hyphen : — man-servant, eye- 
servant, pocket-handJcerchief. 

When proper nouns are used as adjectives, they are 
sometimes defining, and sometimes qualifying adjectives. 
Thus, while the term, Brussels carpet, was used to desig- 
nate a carpet made at Brussels, the word, Brussels, was a 
defining adjective ; now it is used to designate a kind or 
quality of carpets, and it is a qualifying adjective. 

Words belonging to other parts of speech are sometimes 
inelegantly used as adjectives : The then administration ; 
a would-be statesman. 

Articles. — Two defining adjectives, an and the, 
have been classed by themselves, and called Articles. An 
is called the Indefinite article, and the the Definite article. 
An loses the n, and becomes a, when used before words 
beginning with a consonant, h aspkated, u long, or y : as 
a man, a horse, a university, a year. It is derived fi:-om 
the same root as one. The is derived from the same root 
as this and that ; and an or a, and the, have all the quali- 
ties of defining adjectives.*" 

^ See Note A. 



VERBS. 17 



Questions on the Adjective. 

In the following sentences, which words are Adjectives f 
Which are qualifying, and which defining Adjectives 7 
To what noun does each Adjective belong ? Which are in 
the comparative J and which are in the superlative degree 7 

Beautiful groves and delightful fields were seen on every 
side. 

Trees which were large, straight and tall abounded in 
America. 

George is taller than you are, but John is the tallest. 

William Pitt was the most eloquent man in parliament. 

That star appears the least brilhant, because it is the 
most distant. 

The packet which sailed on the tenth day of August 
carried fifty passengers. 

She is more beautiful than her sister, but less amiable. 



CHAPTER IV 

OF VERBS. 



Verb is firom the Latin verbum, the leading signification; 
of which is word, but it has also the same signification as 
verb in Enghsh. The verb is the most important of all the 
parts of speech. 

A verb is a word which expresses action, being, or 
suffering ; and under the term, action, is included all the 
operations of the mind and of nature, and the emotions of 
the heart. 

A verb may be known by making sense with either of 
the personal pronouns before it : — ^ I run, he thinJcs, thou 
lovest, she is, it rains, they live, who is afflicted 7 

Verbs are of two kinds. Transitive and Intransitive. 
The word transitive is derived from the Latin transeo, to 
pass over; it is applicable to whatever passes over; 
2* 



18 VERBS. 

intransitive is applicable to whatever does not pass over. 
Many grammarians denominate the two classes active and 
neuter ; but these appellations do not desciibe the gram- 
matical characteristics which distinguish one class from the 
other. 

A transitive verb expresses an action performed, or an 
influence exerted, by an agent, which action or influence 
passes to, rests upon, or affects, an object : — John strikes 
Peter. Here John is the agent or actor, strikes expresses 
the action, and Peter is the object upon which the action 
rests. The sun enlightens the earth ; love softens the 
heart ; the tutor instructs the pupils. In these expres- 
sions, enlightens, softens, and instructs are transitive verbs, 
preceded by the names of the agents in the nominative 
case, and followed by the names of the objects in the ob- 
jective case. 

An intransitive verb expresses simply existence ; — I 
am, he lives ; or it expresses the action of an agent, which 
does not pass over to, nor affect, an object: — I run, John 
plays, trees grow, his head aches. 

Many verbs may be used as transitive, and also as in- 
transitive verbs : — Maria sung charmingly ; Maria sung an 
Italian song last evening. In the first sentence sung has 
no object ; in the last, it has an object, which is song. 

A combination of the verb to he with the past participle 
of a transitive verb forms what has been called a Passive 
verb : — to he loved, to he instructed, she is loved, they are 
instructed. Here the name of the object is the nomina- 
tive of the verb, and the name of the agent, if any is 
spoken of, follows, and is pointed out by a preposition : — 
she is loved by her companions ; he 15 instructed by the 
tutor. This is rather a form than a class of verbs. 

Many nouns may be used as verbs : — I hope to succeed ; 
he has no hope of success. 

There is a small but important class of verbs of one 
syllable, called Auxiliaries, and they are so called because 
they help to conjugate the principal verbs. They are some- 
times called the signs of modes and tenses, each mode and 
each tense having its peculiar auxiliary, or auxiliaries, or com- 
bination of auxiliaries. They are can, may, must, shall, could. 



VERBS. 19 

would, shauld, and migJit. As they are much used, some ob- 
servations upon their meaning and use may be of service to 
the scholar. 

Caji expresses abiUty : — he can write. 

3Ia2/ expresses possibility or liberty : — the report mai/ be 
true ; you mai/ go. 

3Iust expresses necessity or obligation : — all men must 
die ; you must go. 

Shall expresses obligation or necessity. It is used only in 
helping to form future tenses ; and its import is different when 
used in the first, and when used in the second and third per- 
sons. In the first person, it denotes what will necessarily 
happen, or simply foretels: — "we sJiall recewe a just reward 
for deeds done in the body ; " I shall see you to-morrow. In 
the second and third persons, it promises, commands, or 
threatens; — "thou shalt inherit the land;" "ye shall do 
justice and love mercy ; " " he shall be punished." 

Could expresses ability ; might, permission or possibility ; 
should, obligation or necessity ; loould, desire, willingness, 
and sometimes determination. They are used in conditional 
and dependent phrases : — I ivould go if I could ; I could 
walk if you ivould assist me ; you shoidd never be angry with- 
out just cause ; in such a case might I not tell him my mind 
fi-ankly ? They are used in phrases when a point of time is 
not specified : — youth shoidd venerate age ; people often suf- 
fer for the want of what they might easily obtain ; men would 
be much happier if they were always virtuous. They are 
used to express ideas which are future in regard to a speci- 
fied or implied point of time, whether past, present, or future. 
He told me last week that he ivould, &.c. go yesterday, to- 
day, to-morrow ; your friend being now present, you could, 
might, should tell him your mind frankly ; you have done all 
you can, as circumstances are, but you coidd, &c. do more 
after obtaining legal authority. They are used in expressions 
implying respect, hesitation, and doubt : I would recom- 
mend ; — I should think this would be the wiser course ; I 
could wish you would do it ; might I be permitted to advise. 
If used when no condition is expressed, one is generally im- 
plied, or some limitation of the expression, or a dependence 
of the idea expressed upon some other idea, seems to be pre- 
sent in the mind of the speaker : — I would recommend what 
I have said to your attention ; here, if I might be permitted, 
if you would excuse my presumption, or some such clause, 
seems to be necessary to complete the sentence ; " the poli- 



20 VERBS. 

tics of courts are so mean, that private people would be 
ashamed to act in the same way ;" that is, if in similar or 
analogous circumstances : I should be happy to see you ; 
that is, if you would visit me. Could, would, and should, are, 
however, sometimes used when no condition is implied : — 
he would go, and we could not prevent it ; rulers shoidd be 
obeyed. * 

This is but an imperfect definition of the auxiliaries. 
Much of the elegance, precision, and force of composition 
depend upon the right use of them ; and the best, if not the 
only, method of acquiring a just conception of their import is, 
to observe attentively in what manner they are used by 
authors distinguished for the correctness of their style, and 
their adherence to the true English idiom. 

In addition to the foregoing, several principal verbs are 
used as auxiliaries : they are have, do, he, and will. 

Have needs no explanation. 

Do, which has did in the past tense, is used to render the 
expression more positive and emphatic, and in negative and 
interrogative phrases : — I do love you ; he does not love 
you ; here I am, for thou didst call me ; do you intend to 
go to Boston 1 It is often used to form the past tense of 
irregular verbs, especially in the second person singular : — 
thou didst strike, not thou striickest. It does not, like the 
auxiliaries strictly so called, modify the meaning of the verb. 

JBe is used in the indefinite and passive forms of conjuga- 
tion : — to be loving ; to be loved, &c. 

Will expresses determination, promises, and foretels, and 
is used only in helping to form future tenses. Like shall, it 
has a different import when used in the second and third 
persons. In the first person, it expresses determination or it 
promises : — we ivill have our revenge ; I will pay you all. 
In the second and third persons, it foretels : — you will re- 
pent ; they ivill have a pleasant walk. Shall and will are 
often improperly used one for the other ; — "I icill drown 
and nobody shall help me," said a man who fell into the 
Potomac.t 

To verbs belong Number, Person, Participle, Mode, 
Tense, and Conjugation. 

* See Note B. t See Note C. 



VERBS. 21 

NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have two Numbers, singular and plural, and 
three Persons, first, second, and third, corresponding with 
the numbers and persons of pronouns and nouns. The 
termination st or est denotes the second person singular, 
and 5 or es the third person singular. But the auxiliaries 
and some principal verbs in common use, such as he, need, 
dare, he. have the same termination in the third person 
singular as in the first ; shall and ivill have shalt and wilt 
in the second person singular ; and the termination of must 
is never changed. 

PERSON. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 I love, We love. 

2 Thou lovest, You love. 

3 He loves, They love. 
3 A man writes, Men write. 

2 Thou shalt go, You shall go. 

PARTICIPLE. 

The participle is a form of the verb, and it is so called 
because it partakes (participates) of the properties of the 
verb and the adjective. There are three kinds ; the In- 
definite, by some called the Present Participle, which al- 
ways ends in ing : — loving, ivriting, keeping ; the Past, 
which usually ends in ed, but sometimes differently : — 
loved, tvritten, Jcept ; and the Indefinite Past : — having 
loved, having written, having Jcept. 

The indefinite participle is so called because, of itself, it 
does not convey the idea of any definite time, and may refer 
to any portion of time whatever, according to the import of 
other words used in connection with it. It describes an ac- 
tion as doing, continuing, not finished, at a time specified by 
other words, past, present, or future. The past, and the in- 
definite past participles, are sufficiently described by their 
names. 

The indefinite and past participles are often used as adjec- 
tives. In the following expressions the words in Italic are 
participles : — " the young man, admiring Washington, took 
him for his pattern ; " " the painting, admired by all who 
saw it, established his reputation." In the following expres*- 



22 VERBS. 

sions, the same words are adjectives: — "he was followed 
by an admiring multitude ;" " West's paintings are admired 
productions." 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the past parti- 
ciple is used as a participle or as an adjective. It must be 
considered a participle when it expresses action, and an ad- 
jective when it does not ; in other words, it must be consid- 
ered a participle whenever an indefinite participle, or a relative 
pronoun and the substantive verb, can be supplied before it : 
— " She died (being) lamented by all who knew her ; " 
*' words (which are) fitly spoken are like apples of gold in 
pictures of silver ; " " read books, (ivhich ivere) written by the 
best authors, and you will acquire an elegant and correct 
style." 

MODE. 

Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the man- 
ner in which action, being, or suffering is represented. A 
modification of the meaning of a phrase, not produced by 
an alteration of the form of the verb, but by the use of 
words belonging to other parts of speech, does not consti- 
tute a mode. And in speaking of the form of a verb, not 
only the original Avord, but the auxiliaries added, are taken 
into view: shall-have-loved constitutes but one verb, and 
is a modification of the verb to love. 

There are five modes, the Infinitive, the Indicative, the 
Potential, the Conditional,* and the Imperative.! 

To express action or being in the abstract, or in an in- 
definite sense, without regard to person or number, the 
Infinitive is used : — to go, to live. 

This mode is denoted by the prefix, to, expressed or under- 
stood, which must not be confounded with the preposition to. 
It has been traced to the same origin as the verb do, the 
most comprehensive of all the verbs expressing action ; and 
it is therefore appropriately placed before words to denote 
that they are used as verbs : — to stone a bird ; to ship a 
cargo ; to square the circle ; to forward a plan or purpose. 
— It seems to belong to the class of auxiliaries. J 

* See Note D. t See Note E. 

t See Diversions of Purley, Yol. I. pp. 285-293. 



VERBS. 23 

To relate or foretel events, and to describe actions, (the 
term action being here used in its most extensive sense,) the 
Indicative is used : — " Bonaparte left Va.Yis, joined his army, 
and was defeated at Waterloo ; " " the sun sJiines and will 
continue to shine;" "reason compares^ the will decides^ 
This mode is sometimes called the historical mode. 

To express possibility, liberty, power, or obligation the 
Potential is used. The auxiliaries belonging to this mode, 
and called the signs of it, are may, can, and must : it may 
rain ; he may go ; I can ride ; he must ride ; he may have 
ridden. 

To express an idea conditionally, or to indicate that 
there is a dependence of the idea expressed upon another 
idea expressed or implied, the Conditional is used. 
The auxiliaries belonging to this mode are could, might, 
should, and ivould : — I would go if I could ; he might 
ride if he pleased ; I should be glad to see you, if you 
should ever visit New- York. 

To command, entreat, or exhort, the Imperative is 
used: — '' depart, ye cursed ;" ^'forgive our trespasses ;" 
"repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." 

TENSE. 

Tense is derived from a word signifying time (Latin, 
tempus ; French, temps) ; and it denotes a modification of 
the verb, or a change in its form, for the purpose of ex- 
pressing, besides the action described, the " added circum- 
stance " of the particular time of that action. It is also 
applied to forms of the verb which leave the point of time 
undetermined. 

Time has three principal divisions, — present, past, and 
iuture. A verb has, therefore, three principal tenses, — 
present, past, and future : 

Present. I praise, I write. 

Past. I praised, I wrote. 

Fnture. I shall or will praise, I shall or will write. 

But in addition to these principal tenses, there are 
others, which are used when we wish to refer an action 
or intention to some particular portion or subdivision of 



24 VERBS. 

past or future time, or to express an idea without reference 
to time. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses, the Indefinite and 
the Past. 

The indefinite tense is used when we wish to express a 
general idea which has no reference to a particular time, 
or may be referred to time present, past, or fliture : — • " ^o 
he good is to he happy ; " '^ to praise God was the delight 
of our first parents in paradise ; " " /o praise God is the 
delight of pious men ; " " to praise God will be for ever the 
delight of just men made perfect." When it follows 
another verb, it generally points to a time subsequent to the 
time denoted by that verb : — I intend to go ; I intend- 
ed to go ; he will engage to go. Sometimes it refers to 
the same time as the preceding verb. 

The past tense is used when we wish to describe or re- 
late what is passed. It is formed by the help of the aux- 
iliary to have and the past participle of the principal verb : 
— " Alfred appears to have governed England with justice 
as well as rigor." This tense generally, if not always, re- 
fers to a time previous to the time denoted by the verb 
which precedes it. 

The indicative mode, which is the one most used, has 
six tenses, — the present, the present past, the past, the 
prior past, the future, and the future past. 

The present tense represents an action or event as pass- 
ing or happening at the precise time in which it is spoken 
of: — I love, he walks, the tree is falling. The verb in 
this tense retains its original form, except in the second and 
third persons singular. To he, however, is an exception, 
which has several forms in the present tense. 

But necessity, convenience, or caprice has led mankind to 
make frequent use of the form of the present tense to express 
ideas not restricted to present time, and to represent past ac- 
tions as actually passing at the moment of speaking. Thus 
it is used to express general truths, axioms, and qualities 
which always exist : — goodness deserves esteem ; the 
whole is greater than a part; virtue is amiable at all 
times. It is used to express a future action already deter- 
mined on : — I go to Boston to-morrow. It is used to 



VERBS. 25 

of authors who are dead, but whose works are extant : — 
*' Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." It is used when the 
time of the action spoken of is future, and is pointed out by other 
words, especially adverbs of time : — when, before, after, as 
soon as, he arrives^ he will hear the news. It is sometimes 
used after the word if to express future time : — "7/" he 
comes soon, all will be well." It is used in historical and 
poetical narrations to exhibit past events or transactions to 
the mind of the reader as though actually present : — " the 
battle rages on the hill ; soldier meets soldier in direful 
conflict ; the general leads the reserve to the assistance 
of the main body ; the carnage is redoubled ; the enemy 
fee ; and the assailants remain masters of the position." 

The present past is formed by the use of the present 
tense of the auxiliary have and the past participle of the 
principal verb ; and here it may be proper to observe, 
that the primitive meaning of auxiliaries, in regard both 
to the action they describe and the time they denote, is 
not lost when connected with a principal verb, and that 
a compound tense expresses a compound idea. This 
tense represents an action as having passed in a period of 
time which has some expressed, obvious, or latent con- 
nection with, or reference to, the present time : — I have 
seen him to-day ; here the action is finished, but the time 
mentioned includes the present time. I have accomplished 
my task ; here a reference to the present time is not ob- 
vious, but that there is, or may be, such a reference, is 
show^i by the necessity of using a different tense, when 
all such reference is excluded' — I accomplished my task 
yesterday. " The clergy have always claimed great pow- 
ers ; " here this tense is used because the order of the 
clergy yet exists ; w^e cannot say, the Druids have claimed 
great powers, because the Druids no longer exist. 

" The song has ceased. 
And young Rinaldo leads the lady forth 
To dance a graceful measure on the turf." 

Here the idea conveyed is, that the song has just ceased.. 
The past tense is used to represent past actions or 
events, without reference to any division of past time : — 
3 



26 VERBS, 

he wrote ; they were writing ; Alexander conquered the 
Persians ; they were instructed. 

The time denoted by verbs having the form of the past 
tense is not always antecedent or previous to the time when 
a person is speaking. That form is often used to denote 
present, or even future time, when either stands in the rela- 
tion of past time to some other time specified or implied in 
the sentence : — If it were raining, we should be obliged ta 
seek shelter ; if he had wealth, he would be generous ; sup- 
pose he was here, what would you say to him 1 if he left town 
to-morrow, he might arrive at Boston in season ; America, 
if she /e?/, would fall like the strong man ; if George had not 
died until December next, he would have been twenty years 
old. In the last example, the time denoted by the verb had 
died was previous to the time of speaking ; the time denoted 
by would have been must be subsequent to the time of speak- 
ing, but past in relation to December. " If any person shall 
assist a prisoner, hereafter committed for any crime, to escape 
before conviction, he shall suffer the same punishment which 
the prisoner would have suffered if he had been convicted of 
the crime for which he stood committed." Here all the times 
denoted by the verbs in Italics are future in relation to the 
date of the law, but past in relation to the time denoted by 
shall suffer ; had been convicted refers to a time which is past 
in relation to woidd have suffered ; stood refers to past time, 
reckoning from the time denoted by shall suffer. 

The past tense may be used after the verb to wish, when 
present time is referred to : — I wish my friend had a lucra- 
tive profession. Here icish, though in the present tense, points 
to the future ; and in order to express present time, the mind 
is recalled to the past. By the same rule, when past time is 
referred to, the prior past tense is used : I wish I had written 
yesterday. These expressions have some analogy to the 
structure of the present past, the future past, and other tenses. 
The union of different tenses, like the mixture of different 
ingredients, produces a compound partaking of the properties 
of both, but of the properties of neither in their full extent. 

The use of the past tense in the following phrases may 
perhaps be explained in the same way : — I should suppose it 
was so : from the dust which rises, one would think that the 
enemy were near ; who would imagine that the steeple before 
us was two hundred feet high ? This suggestion assumes that 
such modifications of the verb as should suppose refer natu- 
rally to the future. 



VERBS. 27 

The prior past is formed by the use of the past of the 
verb to have, and the past participle of the principal verb. 
It is used when speaking of an action which took place 
prior to (before) another action also past ; and it is some- 
times called the pluperfect, more than perfect, or more 
than past : " I had accomplished my task when he arrived ; 
he gave directions yesterday, but I had already performed 
the duty." 

The future is used when speaking of an action yet to be 
performed, or of an event yet to happen. It is formed 
by the use of one of the auxiliaries shall or ivill, and the 
infinitive of the principal ^jerb : — he will ivrite to you to- 
morrow ; you shall have your reward. 

The future past is formed by the use of the auxiliaries 
shall or will, the infinitive of have, and the past participle 
of the principal verb. It refers to a time which is future 
in regard to the present time, but past in regard to some 
other time mentioned : — he will have accomplished his 
task by noon to-morrow ; they will have departed before 
you arrive at their house."* 

The Potential mode has tv/o tenses, the present and the 
past. 

The present tense is formed by the use of the auxiUaries 
may, can, and must, and the infinitive of the principal 
verb : — he may — can — must go. Like the present 
tense of the indicative mode, it has sometimes a future sig- 
nification : ■ — he may — can — must go to-morrow. It has 
before been remarked that the indefinite of the infinitive, 
when it follows a verb, generally points to the future. 

The past tense is formed by the use of the same auxili- 
aries, the infinitive of have, and the past participle of the 
principal verb : — ■ I may have loritten. It may be used 
with reference to any portion of past time. 

The Conditional mode has two tenses, the indefinite and 
the past. 

The indefinite tense is formed by the help of the aux- 
iUaries could, might, should and would, and the infinitive 
of the principal verb : — in that event, he could — might — 
should — would go. 

* See Note F. 



28 



VERBS. 



These auxiliaries do not seem to contain or import, of 
themselves, any idea of time, but are made to point or refer 
to time past, present, or future, by the use of other words, or 
by the tenor and drift of the discourse. This is exemplified 
in the following phrases, the first of each set appearing to 
denote past, and the last, future time : — I did not ac- 
complish the business, and my apology is, that I could not 
accomplish it in time ; even if my friends should assist me I 
could not accomplish the business in time. — He was ill, but I 
thought he might live ; he is ill, but if he would but take ex- 
ercise, he might live many years. — It was my direction that 
he should submit ; it is my direction that he shozdd submit. — 
I asked him to stay but he would not ; if you should ask him 
to stay until to-morrow, he would not. 

Might and shoidd cannot, however, be used, with the infin- 
itive alone, to refer to past time, except when a time is men- 
tioned or is implied, which is previous to the time to which 
these words refer. We cannot say, George might — should 
write yesterday ; but v/e may say, the master told George, 
last week, that he might — should write yesterday. 

It is important to consider attentively tlie force and import 
of the several parts of a compound tense. Coidd, mighty 
shoiddy and woidd do not express any idea of time, nor does 
the indefinite of the infinitive, in connection Vv'ith which they 
are always used, although, when it follows another verb, it 
generally inclines to the future. A tense thus composed 
must therefore, of necessity, be an indefinite tense, more 
easily and more often inclining towards the future than any 
other portion of time. And should any one take the trouble 
to observe the import of this tense, whenever he meets with it 
in his ordinary reading, he will find that the use corresponds 
with the composition of it. Even when the time referred to 
is anterior to present time, it is subsequent to some other 
past time specified or implied. 

Cariy may, and must do express an idea of time, and that 
time is present time. Add the indefinite of the infinitive, 
and nothing more (I can go,) and the time signified is still 
present time ; the definite import of the auxiliary deciding, 
in such cases, that of the tense ; but add a word denoting 
future time, and the tense veers thitherward — (I can go to- 
morrow.) A tense thus composed cannot be used to signify a 
time anterior to present time. 

Were is sometimes used for ivould be : " Returning were as 
tedious as go o'er." This is a German idiom, and it were 
better to avoid it. 



VERBS. 29 

The past tense is formed by the use of the same auxili- 
aries, the infinitive of have, and the past participle of the 
principal verb : — he could, might, should, would have 
zvritten. In this tense, it is not the auxiliary, but the past 
participle, that determines the tense to be a past tense. 
It may be used with reference to any portion of past time. 

Had is sometimes used for would have: — "Many acts 
which had been blamable in a peaceable government were 
employed to detect conspiracies." This also is a German 
idiom, and is not entitled to favor. 

The Imperative mode has but one tense, the present ; 
but one person, the second ; and the form of the verb is 
the same in both numbers : — John, study your lesson ; 
boys, study your lesson. 

Some grammarians call this a future tense, for the reason 
that a command, entreaty, or exhortation has always refer- 
ence to an action not yet performed. And the verb, in such 
expressions as the following, has been assigned, by some 
grammarians, to the Imperative mode, third person : — 
" Perish the lore that deadens young desire ; " " this day be 
bread and peace my lot ; " " blessed be God ; " " be it so ; " but 
these expressions are more probably inverted and elliptical, 
and if the omissions were supplied would read — let, or may, 
the lore perish ; may bread and peace be my lot ; may God 
be blessed ; let it be so, or may it be so. 

CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement of 
its several numbers, persons, modes, and tenses, showing 
all the modifications of which it is susceptible. 

Some verbs are regular, some irregular, and some defec- 
tive in their conjugations. 

Regular verbs are those which have ed at the end of 
the past tense and past participle. 

Irregular verbs are all those which do not have ed at 
the end of the past tense and past participle. 

Defective verbs are those which are not used in all the 
modes and tenses : such as ought, quoth, wot, wis, and the 
auxiliaries. 

3 * 



30 VEHBS* 

English verbs may be conjugated in three different 
ways ; in other words, there are three different forms of 
conjugation — the Active, the Indefinite Active, and the 
Passive. Thus to love is, in the active form, I love^ I lov- 
ed, I shall love, fee. ; in the indefinite active form it is, 
I am loving, I was loving, I shall he loving, he. ; in the 
passive form it is, I am loved, I was loved, I shall he loved, 
&;c. The indefinite active and the passive forms differ 
only in this : in the former, the indefinite participle, in the 
latter, the past participle, is placed after the verb to he in 
all its variations. Neither can be considered a class of 
verbs ; but the former is as much entitled to be so consid- 
ered as the latter. 



Conjugation of Verbs in the Active form. 

To LOVE, (a regular verb.) 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, To love. 

Past Tense, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite, Loving. 

Past, Loved. 

Indefinite past, Having loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. I love, we love. 

2. thou lovest, {or you love,)* you love, (or ye love.)* 

3. he, she, or it loves, (or loveth,)*they love. 



* It must be remembered that you is generally used instead of thou. 
for the second person singular ; as you love ; that, in solemn style, the 
third person singular ends in eth, as, he loveth ; and that, in that style 
ye is used instead ofyou in the second person plural ; as, ye love. 



VERBS. 31 



Present past Tense* 

1. I have loved, we have loved. 

2. thou hast loved, you have loved. 

3. he has loved, they have loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved, we loved. 

2. thou lovedst, you loved. 

3. he loved, they loved. 

Prior past Tense. 

1. I had loved, we had loved. 

2. thou hadst loved, you had loved. 

3. he had loved, they had loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will love, we shall or will love, 

2. thou shalt or wilt love, you shall or will love. 

3. he shall or will love, they shall or will love. 

Future past Tense. 

1. I shall have loved, we shall have loved. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have loved. 

loved, 

3. he shall or will have loved, they shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may* love, we may love. ' 

2. thou mayest love, you may love. 

3. he may love, they may love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I may * have loved, we may have loved. 

2. thou mayest have loved, you may have loved. 

3. he may have loved, they may have loved. 

* Can and miist are also used in both tenses of the potential mode. 



32 VERBS. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

1. I could * love, we could love. 

2. thou couldst love, you could love. 

3. he could love, they could love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I could * have loved, we could have loved. 

2. thou couldst have loved, you could have loved. 

3. he could have loved, they could have loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
2. Love, or love thou, love, or love you. 

In the same manner are conjugated all regular verbs ; and 
there is no difference between the conjugation of regular and 
of irregular verbs, except in the mode of forming the past 
tense and past participle. 



To HAVE, (an irregular verb.) 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense ^ To have. 

Past Tense, To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite, Having. 

Past, Had. 

Indefinite past, Having had. 



* Might, shovldy and would are also used in both tenses of the con- 
ditional mode. In the several tables or paradigms, the several auxiU- 
aries will be separately used. 



^1 

VERBS. 3^ 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


I have, 

thou hast, 

he, she, or it has. 


we have. 

ye or you have 

they have. 




Present past Tense. 


I have had, 
thou hast had, 
he has had. 




we have had. 
you have had. 
they have had. 

Past Tense. 


I had, 
thou hadst, 
he had, 




we had. 
you had. 
they had. 




P 


rior past Tense. 


I had had, 
thou hadst had 
he had had. 


> 


we had had. 
you had had. 
they had had. 



Future Tense. 

I shall or will have, we shall or will have, 

thou shalt or wilt have, you shall or will have, 
he shall or will have, they shall or will have. 

Future past Tense. 

I shall have had, we shall have had. 

thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have had. 

had, 

he shall or will have had they shall or will have had. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

I can * have, we can have, 

thou canst have, you can have, 

he can have, they can have. 

* May and must are also signs of the potential mode. 



34 VERBS. 

Past Tense. 

I can have had, we can have had. 

thou canst have had, you can have had. 
he can have had, they can have had. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

I might * have, we might have, 

thou mightest have, you might have, 

he might have, they might have. 

Past Tense. 

I might have had, we might have had. 

thou mightest have had, you might have had. 
he might have had, they might have had. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
2. Have, or have thou. Have, or have you. 



TO BE. 



The verb to he is exceedingly irregular ; and this irregularity 
is occasioned by the different parts of it having been received 
from different languages, all once spoken by our ancestors in 
England, or by their ancestors on the continent of Europe. 
Be is from one source, am from another, was from another, 
and were from another. These are different words, all having 
the same meaning, and all, possibly, derived from the same 
root. This is not the only instance in which an English verb 

* Could, should and would are also signs of the conditional mode. 



VERBS. 35 

is formed by the union of two or more. From the two verbs, 
to go, and to wend, is formed the verb to go, as it is now 
used ; went being the past of to wend. Wend is sometimes, 
however, used in the present tense as well as go ; and to he 
has more than one form in the present and past tenses. In 
the Spanish language, the substantive verb has two different 
forms, apparently identical in meaning, and often, though not 
in all cases, indiscriminately used. 

This verb having more than one form in the present tense, 
a custom has arisen of using one of these forms, (he,) only 
when a conjunction is used or a doubtful idea is expressed. 
There being also two forms in the past tense, (loas and were,) 
custom likewise requires that, in the first and third persons 
singular, were should not be used except when a conjunction 
is used, or a doubtful idea is expressed. In the following 
table, if is therefore prefixed, merely to show the established 
usage. But it must be remembered that custom does not re- 
quire that he and were should always be used in the above 
mentioned cases. If I am, &c. and, if I was, &/C. are expres- 
sions sanctioned by custom, and undoubtedly proper. 

In the following table, he is placed first in order, because it 
has, like all other verbs in the present tense of the indicative 
mode, the same form (disregarding the personal terminations) 
as the indefinite of the infinitive. Thus, from to love comes 
I love, from to go comes I go. Custom is sometimes capri- 
cious ; had she regarded analogy, she would have chosen he 
for positive expressions, and compelled am, &,c. to consort 
with conjunctions. Her choice was probably influenced by 
the fact, that he must always be used when an auxiliary is 
omitted. 

The plural oiwas (we was, you was, they was,) is not now 
used, except by the illiterate and careless. Were supplies its 
place, officiating as the plural of was as well as oiwere. See 
Note E. and Webster'' s Diet. Ato. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, To be. 

Past Tense, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite, Being. 

Past, Been. 

Indefinite past, Having been. 



36 VERBS. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — (first form.) 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

If I be, if we be. 

if thou (beest, or) be, if you be. 
if he be, if they be. 

Present Tense — (second form.) 
I am, we are. 

thou art, you are. 

he is, they are. 

Present past Tense. 
I have been, we have been, 

thou hast been, you have been, 

he has been, they have been. 

Past Tense — (first form.) 

I was, 

thou wast, 

he was, 

Past Tense — (second form.) 
If I were, we were, 

thou wert, you were. 

if he were, they were. 

Prior past Tense. 

I had been, we had been, 

thou hadst been, you had been, 

he had been, they had been. 

Future ' Tense. 

I shall or will be, we shall or will he. 

thou shalt or wilt be, you shall or will be, 
he shall or will be, they shall or will be. 

Future past Tense. 

I shall have been, we shall have been. 

thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have been. 

been, 
he shall or will have been, they shall or will have been. 



VERBS. 37 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

I must * be, we must be. 

thou must be, you must be. 

he must be, they must be. 

Past Tense. 

I must have been, we must have been, 

thou must have been, you must have been, 
he must have been, they must have been. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

I should t be, we should be. 

thou shouldst be, you should be. 

he should be, they should be. 

Past Tense. 

I should have been, we should have been, 

thou shouldst have been, you should have been, 
he should have been, they should have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Be, or be thou. Be, or be you. 



Verbs are conjugated by the help of do and did in the fol- 
lowing manner : 



* Can and may are also signs of the potential mode. 

t Couldf mightf and would are also signs of the conditional mode. 

4 



38 



VERBS. 



TO PRAISE. — (Active form.) 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



I do praise, 
thou dost praise, 
he does praise, 



I did praise, 
thou didst praise, 
he did praise. 



we do praise, 
you do praise, 
they do praise. 



Past Tense. 



we did praise, 
you did praise, 
they did praise. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Do praise, or do thou praise, do praise, or do you praise. 



Verbs are conjugated negatively, interrogatively, and nega- 
tively-interrogatively, in the following manner : 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Tense. Negatively. 
Present, I do not praise, 



Interrogatively 

, ^ , do I praise ? 

Pres. past, I have not praised, have I praised ? 



Past, I did not praise 

Prior past, I had not praised 
Future, I shall not praise 
Fut. past, I shall not have 
praised, 



did I praise 
had I praised ? 
shall I praise ? 
shall I have 
praised ? 



Neg.-Interrog. 
do I not praise ? 
have I not praised ? 
did I not praise ? 
had I not praised ? 
shall I not praise ? 
shall I not have 

praised ? 



VERBS. 39 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Pres. I can not praise, can I praise ? can I not praise ? 

Past, I cannot have praised, can I have praised ? can I not have praised? 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indef.l could not praise, could I praise ? could I not praise ? 
Past, I could not have prais- could I have prais- could I not have prais- 
ed, ed ? ed ? 

Observe^ that when the verb is conjugated negatively, the 
negative adverb, and when it is conjugated interrogatively, 
the pronoun, is placed next after the first auxiliary. When it 
is conjugated negatively-interrogatively, the pronoun and neg- 
ative adverb are placed after the first auxiliary, but it is 
equally proper to place either first ; — Do I not praise ? do 
not I praise ? — Could he not have praised ? could not he 
have praised ? 

A clause, or part of a sentence, as well as an adverb, may 
be inserted between different parts of a verb : — " The king 
had never, during his long reign of fifty years, met with diffi- 
culties so perplexing ; " '* If you can not, without offending 
your neighbour, /w/^^ all your duties to God, can you, for one 
moment, hesitate what course to pursue 1 " 



Conjugation of Verbs in the Indefinite Active Form, 

A verb is conjugated in this form by using, without va- 
riation, the indefinite participle of the verb to be conjuga- 
ted, and the verb to he In all its modes and tenses. It is 
called the Indefinite Active Form, because the verb, in this 
form, does not define the time of the action which it des- 
cribes with so much precision as in the active form. The 
bird was flying w^ien he shot it : — here ivas flying does 
not present to the mind any idea of the beginning nor 
end of the action ; for aught the verb tells us, the bird 
may have been flying from the beginning of time, and 
may continue to be flying to the end of it. The verb shotj 



40 VERBS. 

on the contrary, describes the whole of an action, not con- 
tinuous, but confined to a point of time. — All verbs, 
except the verb to he, may be conjugated in this way. 



To WRITE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, To be writing. 

Past Tense, To have been writing. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite, 

Past, 

Indefinite past, Having been writing. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense.^ 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I am writing, we are writing, 

thou art writing, you are writing, 

he is writing, they are writing. 

Present past Tense. 

I have been writing, we have been ^vriting. 

thou hast been writing, you have been writing, 
he has been writing, they have been writing. 

Past Tense* 

I was writing, we were writing, 

thou wast writing, you were writing, 

he was writing, they were writing- 

Prior past Tense. 

I had been writing, we had been writing, 

thou hadst been writing, you had been writing, 
he had been writing, they had been writing. 

* Be and were may be used in the present and past tenses, in the 
same manner as they are used in the conjugation of £o he, in page 36. 



VERBS. 



41 



Future Tense. 



I shall or will be writing, 
thou shalt or wilt be writ- 
ing, 
he shall or will be writing, 



we shall or will be writing, 
you shall or will be writing. 

they shall or will be writing. 



Future past Tense. 



I shall have been writing, 
thou shalt or wilt have 

been writing, 
he shall or will have been 

writing, 



we shall have been writing, 
you shall or will have been 

writing, 
they shall or will have been 

writing. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 
Present Tense. 



I may be writing, 
thou mayest be writing, 
he may be writing. 



we may be writing, 
you may be writing, 
they may be writing. 



Past Tense. 



I may have been writing, 
thou mayest have been 

writing, 
he may have been writing, 



we may have been writing, 
you may have been writing. 

they may have been writing. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

I would be writing, we would be writing, 

thou wouldst be writing, you would be writing, 

he would be writing, they would be writing. 

Past Tense. 

I would have been writ- we would have been writing. 

ing, 
thou wouldst have been 

writing, 
he would have been 

writing, 

4* 



you would have been writing, 
they would have been writing. 



42 VERBS, 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Be writing or be thou writing, be writing or be thou writing. 



Conjugation of Verbs in the Passive Form, 

This form of conjugation is distinguished from the indefinite 
active form, merely by the use of the past, instead of the in- 
definite participle ; all the variations (equivalent to inflection) 
being formed upon the verb to be. — None but transitive 
verbs can be conjugated in this way. 



To LOVE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, To be loved. 

Past Tense, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite^ Being loved. 

Past, 

Indefinite past, Having been loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tfnse.* 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I am loved, we are loved, 

thou art loved, you are loved, 

he is loved, they are loved. 

Present past Tense. 

I have been loved, we have been loved, 

thou hast been loved, you have been loved, 
he has been loved, they have been loved. 

* Be and were may also be used in the present and past tenses, as in 
page 36. 



VERBS. 43 

Past Tense* 

I was loved, we were loved, 

thou wast loved, you were loved, 

he was loved, they were loved. 

Prior Past Tense. 

1 had been loved, we had been loved, 

thou hadst been loved, you had been loved, 

he had been loved, they had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

I shall or will be loved, we shall or will be loved, 

thou shalt or wilt be loved, you shall or will be loved, 
he shall or will be loved, they shall or will be loved. 

Future past Tense. 

I shall have been loved, we shall have been loved, 

thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have been 

been loved, loved. 

he shall or will have been they shall or will have been 

loved, loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

I may be loved, we may be loved, 

thou mayest be loved, you may be loved, 

he may be loved, they may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

I may have been loved, we may have been loved, 

thou mayest have been you may have been loved. 

loved, 

he may have been loved, they may have been loved. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

I might be loved, we might be loved, 

thou mightest be loved, you might be loved, 

he might be loved, they might be loved. 

* Be and were may also be used in the present and past tenses, as in 
page 36. 



44 VERBS. 

Past Tense. 

I might have been loved, we might have been loved, 

thou mightest have been you might have been loved. 

loved, 

he might have been loved, they might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Be loved, or be thou loved, be loved, or be you loved. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The principal parts of the verb are the indefinite of 
the infinitive, the first person singular of the past tense of 
the indicative, and the past participle. These parts being 
known, and the use of the various signs of the modes and 
tenses, that is to say, the auxiliaiies, being also known, 
the conjugation of all verbs is easy. Of the regular verbs, 
the past tense of the mdicative and the past participle end 
in ed; of the uTegular verbs, the past tense and past par- 
ticiple end other^vise and variously. 

In the folloT\ing table, which comprises all the irregular 
verbs, they are divided into three classes. The first class 
consists of those verbs which, as they appeal' in the T^Tit- 
ings of some authors, are regular, and in the T\Titings of 
others are irregular. The second class consists of all the 
irregular verbs the use of which is established and uniform. 
The third consists of those u'regular verbs which have va- 
rious forms in the past tense and past participle. Those 
forms should be preferred which are regular, or approach 
the nearest to regularity, unless the prevailing practice is 
evidently opposed to it. 

1. Verhs which are sometimes used with regular, and 
sometimes with irregular terminations, in the past 
tense and past participle. 

Infinitive. Past Tense. Participle. 

Awake, awaked, awoke, awaked. 

bend, bended, bent, bended, bent. 





VERBS. 


45 


Infinitive. 


Past Tense. 


Participle. 


bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


burst, 


bursted, burst. 


bursted, burst. 


catch, 


catched, caught, 


catched, caught. 


chide, 


chided, chid, 


chided, chidden. 


clothe. 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


cleave*, 


cleaved, clove. 


cleavedjcloven, cleft. 


creep, 


creeped, crept, 


creeped, crept. 


crow, 


crowed, crew. 


crowed. 


dare, 


dared, durst. 


dared. 


dig, 


digged, dug, 


digged, dug. 


deal, 


dealed, dealt, 


dealed, dealt. 


dwell, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


dwelled, dwelt. 


gild, 


gilded, gilt. 


gilded, gilt. 


gird, 


girded. 


girded, girt. 


grave, 


graved. 


graved, graven. 


hang. 


hanged, hung, 


hanged, hung. 


hear. 


beared, heard. 


beared, heard. 


hew. 


hewed. 


hewed, hewn. 


knit. 


knitted, knit. 


knitted, knit. 


learn. 


learned, learnt. 


learned, learnt. 


load. 


loaded, 


loaded, laden. 


mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


rive. 


rived. 


rived, riven. 


saw, 


sawed. 


sawed, sawn. 


shape, 


shaped. 


shaped, shapen. 


shave. 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


shine. 


shined, shone, 


shined, shone. 


slit, 


slitted, slit. 


slitted, slit. 


sow. 


sowed. 


sowed, sown. 


spill, 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt. 


sweat, 


sweated, swet. 


sweated, swet. 


swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen. 


thrive. 


thrived, throve, 


thrived, thriven. 


wax. 


waxed. 


waxed, waxen. 


work. 


worked, wrought. 


worked, wrought. 


weed, 


weeded, wed. 


weeded, wed. 



* To split. 



46 



VERBS. 



2. Irregular verbs, the use of tvhich, in the forms here 
exhibited, is established and uniform. 



Infinitive 


Past Tense. Participle. 


Infinitive 


. Past Tense. Participle 


Abide,* 


abode. 


abode. 


give. 


gave. 


given. 


arise, 


arose. 


arisen. 


go. 


went. 


gone. 


bear,t 


bare. 


born. 


grind. 


ground. 


ground. 


bear,t 


bore, 


borne. 


have. 


had. 


had. 


begin, 


began, 


begun. 


hit. 


hit. 


hit. 


beseech, 


besoughl 


t, besought. 


hurt. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


bind. 


bound, 


bound. 


keep, 


kept. 


kept. 


bleed. 


bled. 


bled. 


know. 


knew, 


known. 


blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


lade. 


laded, 


laden. 


break. 


broke. 


broken. 


lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


lead, 


led, 


led. 


bring. 


brought, 


brought. 


leave. 


left, 


left. 


build. 


built. 


built. 


lend. 


lent. 


lent. 


buy. 


bought. 


bought. 


let. 


let. 


let. 


cast. 


cast. 


cast. 


lie,§ 


lay, 


lain. 


choose. 


chose. 


chosen. 


lose, 


lost. 


lost. 


cling, 


clung. 


clung. 


make, 


made. 


made. 


come, 


came. 


come. 


meet. 


met. 


met. 


cost. 


cost. 


cost. 


pay, 


paid. 


paid. 


cut, 


cut. 


cut. 


put. 


put. 


put. 


do, 


did. 


done. 


read. 


read. 


read. 


draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


rend. 


rent. 


rent. 


drive, 


drove. 


driven. 


rid. 


rid. 


rid. 


drink. 


drank, 


drunk. 


rise. 


rose. 


risen. 


eat. 


ate. 


eaten. 


run, 


ran, 


run. 


fall. 


fell. 


fallen. 


say, 


said. 


said. 


feed, 


fed. 


fed. 


see. 


saw. 


seen. 


feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


seek. 


sought. 


sought. 


fight. 


fought, 


fought. 


sell. 


sold. 


sold. 


find. 


found. 


found. 


send. 


sent. 


sent. 


flee. 


fled. 


fled. 


set. 


set. 


set. 


fling, 


flung. 


flung. 


shake. 


shook. 


shaken. 


fly, 


flew. 


flown. 


shear, 


sheared. 


shorn. 


forget. 


forgot. 


forgotten. 


shed. 


shed. 


shed. 


forsake, 


forsook. 


forsaken. 


show. 


showed, 


sho\Mi. 


fi-eeze. 


froze. 


frozen. 


shoe, 


shod. 


shod. 



* To reside. Mide, signifying to sustain or obey, is regular. 

t To bring forth. t To carry. § To lie down. 







VERBS. 




47 


Infinitive 


. Past Tense. Participle, j 


Infinitive 


Past Tense. Participle 


shoot. 


shot, 


shot. 


stink. 


stunk. 


stunk. 


shrink. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


string. 


strung. 


strung. 


shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


strive. 


strove. 


striven. 


shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


swear. 


swore, 


sworn. 


sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


swing. 


swung. 


swung. 


sday, 


slew, 


slain. 


take, 


took. 


taken. 


sleep. 


slept, 


slept. 


teach. 


taught, 


taught. 


slide. 


slid, 


slidden. 


tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


sling. 


slung. 


slung. 


tell. 


told. 


told. 


slink. 


slunk, 


slunk. 


think, 


thought. 


thought. 


smite. 


smote. 


smitten. 


throw. 


threw. 


thrown. 


speak. 


spoke, 


spoken. 


thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


speed. 


sped. 


sped. 


tread. 


trod, 


trodden. 


spend. 


spent, 


spent. 


wear, 


wore. 


worn. 


spin. 


spun. 


spun. 


weave. 


wove. 


woven. 


split. 


split. 


split. 


weep, 


wept. 


wept. 


spread, 


spread. 


spread. 


win. 


won. 


won. 


stand. 


stood, 


stood. 


wind. 


wound, 


wound. 


steal. 


stole. 


stolen. 


wring. 


wrung. 


wrung. 


stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


write. 


wrote, 


written. 


sting, 


stung. 


stung. 









3. Irregular verbs ivhich have various forms in the past 
tense, or past participle, or both. Those forms which 
are least used are printed in Italic characters. 

Infinitive. 
Be, 

beat, 

bid, 

bite, 

get, 

grow, 

hide, 

hold, 

ride, 

ring, 

sing, 

sink, 

spit, 

spring, 

stride, 

strike, 

swim, 



Past Tense. 
was, were, 


Participle, 
been. 


beat. 


beaten, heat. 


bade, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


bit. 


bitten, bit. 


got, 

groioed, grew, 

hid, 


gotten, got. 
grown, 
hidden, hid. 


held. 


holden, held. 


rode. 


ridden, rode. 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


sang, sung, 
sank, sunk, 


sung, 
sunk. 


spat, spit. 


spittcn, spit. 


sprang, sprung, 
strode, strid. 


sprung, 
stridden. 


struck. 


stricken, struck. 


swam, swuniy 


swum. 



48 VERBS. 

Questions on the Verbs. 

Point out the Verbs in the following sentences. 
Which is regular, and which irregular 1 Which \ is 
transitive and which intransitive ? In which form of 
conjugation, mode, tense, person, and number is each 1 

I love to play, but they love to study. 

He appears to have reflected much on the subject. 

They have finished their task. 

We travelled through France. 

They had arrived when we came. 

I shall decide, to-morrow. 

They will have arrived at home before ten o'clock. 

The boys who can cypher may rise. 

He may have said so, but I think you must have mis- 
understood him. 

If he should study constantly, he would learn his les- 
son in an hour. 

If he had been forewarned, he might have avoided the 
danger. 

She is esteemed by all who know her. 

They are studying their lesson. 

The army had been marching all day. 

They will be delighted to hear it. 

They should have been watching the stars, when they 
were carousing in the cabin. 

Questions on the Participles, 

In the following sentences, which words are Partici- 
ples! From what verb is each derived! Which are 
indefinite, which past, and which indefinite past Partici- 
ples 1 To which form of conjugation does each belong 7 
To what noun or pronoun does each refer ? 

He travelled through the country, preaching the Gos- 
pel and bestowing alms. 

Betrayed, deserted, and defeated, he ceased to contend 
with destiny. 



ADVERBS. 49 

The history of England, written by Hume, is full of 
errors. 

Birds, having taught their young to fly, abandon them 
to their fate. 

Young birds, having been taught by their parents to 
fly, are abandoned to their fate. 

The troops having been marching all day were exceed- 
ingly weary. 



CHAPTER V. 
OF ADVERBS. 



The word Adverb is formed jfrom two Latin words, ad., 
to, and verbum, verb. 

Adverbs are words used to modify verbs, or to express 
Bome circumstance relating to the actions they describe, 
such as time, place, order, he. They may also be used 
to modify adjectives or other adverbs : ■ — He reads well ; 
a truly good man ; he writes often, and very correctly. 

Adverbs may be divided into classes *. 

1. Of Manner: — wisely, slowly, thus, so, as, &c. 

Adverbs of this class are numerous, and may 
be formed by adding the termination ly to ad- 
jectives : — hot, hotly ; merry, merrily ; sor- 
rowful, sorrowfully. 

2. Of Time : — now, to-day, already, hereafter, there, 

often, daily, ever, since, Sic. 

3. Of Place : — here, there, where, somewhere, whither, 

whence, &ic, 

4. Of Order : — first, firstly, secondly, finally, &c. 

5. Of Number : — once, twice, thrice, &;c. 

6. Of Quantity : — much, enough, sufficiently, &c. 

7. Of Doubt : — perhaps, peradventure, possibly, per- 

, chance, &ic. 
5 



50 ADVERBS. 

8. Of Affirmation : — verily, truly, yea, yes, indeed, 

&c. 

9. Of Negation : — nay, no, not, never, by no means, 

not at all, &tc. 

10. Of Interrogation : — how, why, wherefore, &c. 

11. Of Comparison : — more, most, better, best, less, 

least, very, almost, rather, he. 

Many adverbs are formed by the addition of a preposi- 
tion to the adverbs here, there, tohere : — hereof, hereto, 
herein, herewith ; thereby, therefore ; whereupon. 

A preposition placed after a verb, and having no object 
expressed nor understood, modifies the meaning of the 
verb, and becomes an adverb : — to ride about ; to pass 
on ; to set out, he. 

Such combinations of words as, by no means, not at all, 
nevertheless, at present, he, may be called compound 
adverbs. 

Some adverbs are compared like adjectives : — soon, 
sooner, soonest. Those ending in ly are compared by 
more and most : — wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 

Questions on the Adverb. 

Which words in the following sentences are Adverbs 1 
Which adverbs modify other words, and ivhich ivords do 
they modify. 

Freely ye have received, freely give. 
Thus saith the Lord. 
As a man soweth, so also shall he reap. 
The pitcher that goes often to the well is soon broken. 
Where liberty dwells, there is my country. 
It is more easy to preach than to practise. 
Perhaps he is not guilty, therefore forbear to condemn 
him. 

By reading attentively, you will learn to read well. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



51 



CHAPTER VI 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



The word Preposition is formed from the Latin words 
jprcB, before, and_po5^V^o, position, from ^ono, to place. 

Prepositions are generally placed before nouns and pro- 
nouns, and show the relation or connection between ac- 
tions or qualities and objects, or between different objects ; 
in other words, between verbs or adjectives and nouns or 
pronouns, or between different nouns or pronouns : — he 
went from Boston to Philadelphia ; she is superior to him ; 
this harbour is convenient for shipping ; to write with a 
pen ; they spoke to me ; a mountain of salt ; the way of 
a ship on the sea. The force of the preposition rests on 
the noun or pronoun which it is said to govern. 

Verbs are often compounded of a preposition and a 
verb : — to wjphold, to iijvest, to oi;erlook ; and this con- 
nection sometimes gives a new sense to the verb : — to 
under standi, to jTorgive. But the preposition is more fre- 
quently placed after the verb, and the meaning of the 
verb is then even more variant from its original meaning : 
— to cast up an account, to get out^ to give over. A 
preposition so placed, if not considered a part of the verb,. 
as it is when placed before it, must be treated as an ad- 
verb qualifying the verb. 



A list of the principal Prepositions. 



0£ 


for. 


at. 


on or upon. 


to. 


by. 


into. 


between. 


over. 


above. 


from. 


beneath. 


under. 


below. 


down. 


before. 


up. 


through. 


about. 


behind. 


with. 


in. 


within. 


besides. 


afler. 


among. 


without. 


beyond. 


against. 


amidst. 


around. 


towards. 



52 CONJUNCTIONS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The word Conjunction is derived from the Latin word 
conjungo, to join together. 

A conjunction is a word used to join or connect senten- 
ces or words. 

Some conjunctions are called copulative, and some dis- 
jimctive, conjunctions. 

The copulative conjimction connects words and senten- 
ces where no opposition or contrariety of meaning is in- 
tended to be expressed : — my brother and myself study 
Latin ; the good man labors to promote the happiness] of 
his fellow beings, and they, on their part, ought to reward 
by revering him ; he is happy because he is good. 

The disjunctive conjunction connects words and senten- 
ces, but shows an opposition or contrariety of meaning : — 
my brother studies Latin, but I do not ; the good man 
labors to promote the happiness of his fellow-beings, but 
the unrighteous man oppresses them ; though he appears 
to be happy, yet he is not. 

A list of tlie principal Conjunctions, 

COPULATIVE. 

And. if that. both, 

then. since. for. because, 

therefore. wherefore. 

DISJUNCTIVE. 

But. or. nor. as. 

than. lest. though. unless, 

either. neither. yet. 

Several words are used, sometimes as a conjunction,, 
sometimes as an adverb, and sometimes as a preposition.*" 

* See Note G. 



INTERJECTIONS. ELLIPSIS. 53 

CHAPTER VIII. 
OF INTERJECTIONS. 

The word Interjection is derived from the Latin word 
interjicio, tb throw between. 

• Words or sounds uttered under the operation of sudden 
or violent emotion, whether pleasing or painful, are called 
Interjections. Some of the words so denominated are ; 
ah ! alas ! O ! oh ! pish ! foh ! pah ! bah ! fie ! O dear ! 
ha ! ha ! ha ! 

Lo ! behold I hark ! &:c. are verbs in the imperative 
mode. 



CHAPTER IX. 
ELLIPSIS. 

In many instances, in speaking and composition, the 
different parts of speech are not expressed nor written, and 
it is necessary that they should be supplied in order to ren- 
der the sentence grammatically complete. Parts of sen- 
tences, equally necessary to be supplied for the same pur- 
pose, are also fi'equently omitted. This omission of words, 
and parts of sentences, is called Ellipsis. It is resorted to 
in order to avoid the unpleasant repetition of words. 

In the following sentences, the words printed in Roman 
characters are all which are necessary to be used in writing 
or speaking. The words printed in Italic characters, and 
also enclosed in parentheses, must be supplied or under- 
stood in order to render the sentence grammatically com- 
plete. In written discourse, however, greater caution should 
be observed in omitting words than in oral. Expressing 
them often renders style more perspicuous. 
5* 



54 ELLIP&ISv 

Ellipsis of the Noun. 

A kind (husband), tender (husband), and faithful hus- 
band. 

Virtue supports in adversity and (virtue) moderates in 
prosperity. 

One man admires one thing, another (man), another 
(thing). 

He went to St. Paul's (church). Whose book is thi| 
(booJc) 1 It is Peter's (book). 

The largest (apple) of the three apples is a Newtown 
pippin. 

One (boy) of the three boys studies Latin. 

Solomon was the wisest (man) of all men. 

In all cases, repeating the words renders the sentence 
emphatic. " Christ the power of God, and the wisdom of 
God," is more emphatic than, Christ the power and wisdom 
of God. 

Ellipsis of the Pronoun. 

I love (him) and (I) fear him. This is the man (whom) 
they love. These are the goods (which) they bought. The 
sentiments (which) he professes are often contradictoiy. 

Ellipsis of the Adjective. 

My father, (my) brother, (my) sisters and (my) mother. 
The men, (the) women and (the) children. A delightful 
garden and (a delightful) orchard. Washington was a 
great scholar, (a great) statesman, and (a great) general. 

Ellipsis of the Verb. 

The man was old, and (was) crafty. He went to Bos- 
ton and (he went) to Salem. She dislikes him and (she 
dislikes) me. He regards his word, but thou dost not 
(regard it, or regard thine). They did not obey, so 
strictly as they ought (to have obeyed) the commands of 



ELLIPSIS. 55 

their parents. He would have paid you if he could (have 
paid you). Did you not write this ? I did not (write it). 
Whom do you see ? (I see) Mr. Smith. 

Ellipsis of Auxiliaries. 

You can go or (you can) stay, as you please. His 
opinion, after hearing the whole matter, whatever it (may) 
be, will determine my course. " Let every man'^ lay by 
him in store as God hath prospered him, that there (may) 
be no gatherings when I (shall) come." Do thy duty, my 
son, and if thou (shouldst) prosper, be not elated, and if 
thou (shouldst) be afflicted, repine not. If he (should) 
succeed and (should) obtain his end, he would not be the 
happier for it. " If a man (shall) smite his servant and he 
(shall) die." " And he said, if I (shall) find there forty 
and five, I will not destroy it." Be it enacted, that the 
president (shall) be, and he hereby is, authorized, he. 
(Here shall has nearly its primitive signification in the 
Saxon language.) He will lose his estate, (and he will) 
disgust his friends, (and he ivill) injure his health, and (he 
will) die forsaken and unpitied. The ellipsis of auxilia- 
ries occurs oftener than that of any other class of words. 

Ellipsis of the Participle. 

(Being) admired and applauded, he became vain. He 
lived (being) admired, and died (being) respected by all 
who knew him. They have been punished and you shall 
be (punished) ; or, they have been (punished) and you 
shall be punished. 

Ellipsis of the Adverb. 

He teaches his scholars to spell (correctly), read (cor- 
rectly), and write correctly. Thrice I went and (thrice I) 
offered my service. He preached (daily) and prayed 
daily. 



56 ELLIPSIS. 

Ellipsis of the Preposition, 

He travelled through New York and (through) Ver- 
mont. He spoke to every man and (to) every woman 
there. He gave (to) me that book. My brother is like 
(to ov unto)\\\m. (^ On j this day. (^J/i ^Aej next month. 
He walked ( ) a mile. 

Ellipsis of the Conjunction. 

God is to be loved for his truth, (and) goodness, (and) 
mercy and grace. If I should go, and (if) he should not. 
Though I love him, {yet) I do not flatter him. 

In some instances, when the conjunction if is omitted, 
the auxiliary is placed before the nominative : — had I 
known this before ; were I able, I would go with you ; that 
is, if I had known ; if I were able. 

Ellipsis of the sign of the Infinitive to. 

To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted before the verbs 
which follow bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, 
and some others : — he bids me (to) go ; they heard him 
{to) speak ; you need not {to) write. 

When two or more verbs in the infinitive mode are used 
in succession, it is omitted before all but the fii'st : — He 
determined to see him, {to) hear him, and {to) speak to 
him. 

Elipsis of part of a Sentence, 

{He being) conscious of his o^mi w^eight and importance, 
. the aid of others was not solicited. 

Folly meets with success in this world, but it is true, 
notwithstanding {that folly meets ivith success in this 
world), that it labors under disadvantages. 

He will often argue that if this part of our trade were 
well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if 
another {jyart of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
gain) fi:om another {nation). 



ELLIPSIS. 57 

The ellipsis or omission of words is very common in 
all languages, and to this habit, prevailing most in ordinary 
discourse, may doubtless be attributed the formation of such 
phrases as at first, at best, as it were, &c., which cannot 
be resolved or parsed by any of the rules of syntax. They 
have been aptly called adverbial phrases. 



PART II. 

SYNTAX 



Syntax treats of sentences ; or, in other terms, of the 
agreement, government, and an-angement of the words 
composing a sentence. 

Words are said to agree with each other, when, in con- 
sequence of some relation between them, they are used in 
the same number, person, and gender. 

One word is said to govern another, when the governing 
word requires the word governed to be in the objective 
case. The word governed is said to be the Object, or Reg- 
imen, of the governing word. When the force of the gov- 
erning word rests upon a participle or part of a sentence, 
the term. Regimen, is generally used. 

In many languages, agreement and government are de- 
noted by the mode in which words are spelled. The En- 
glish language presents but a few instances in which agree- 
ment and government are so denoted. 

The number and person of a verb can, in most cases, 
be ascertained only by regarding the nominative ; the 
nominative and objective cases of nouns can only be as- 
certained by regarding their position and the sense of the 
passage. 

Writing is synthesis or composition ; by which is meant 
putting several words together, in a proper order, and 
forming a sentence. Parsing is analysis or resolution ; by 
which is meant taking a sentence to pieces, and describing 
each word individually, by stating to what part of speech 
it belongs, what word it agrees with, by what word it is 
governed, he. 

Every language has certain rules according to which it 
must be written and spoken ; and by the same mles, so 
far as they go, what is written and spoken must be parsed. 



SYNTAX. 59 

' The English language, having but little inflection, has 
need of but few rules. The noun refuses to change its 
dress at the command of every set of verbs or preposi- 
tions ; the adjective does not submit to wear the livery of 
the noun ; and the verb disdains to be governed by a con- 
junction. 



RULE I. 



All nouns and pronouns, not governed by a transitive 
verb, participle, or preposition, are in the nominative 
case. 

Note 1. This rule includes all nouns and pronouns which 
designate, or stand for, the agents performing the actions de- 
scribed by the verb : — he walks ; the horse draws the chaise ; 
Bonaparte commanded the army ; the sun shines. 

Note 2. Nouns and pronouns which follow an intransitive 
verb or its participle, are in the nominative case, unless gov- 
erned by a preposition understood, or by a preceding transi- 
tive verb : — I am he ; they are the men ; Tom struts a sol- 
dier ; a calf becomes an ox ; " she looks a goddess, and she 
moves a queen ; " Bonaparte being an able general, the kings 
of Europe dared not oppose him. 

Note 3. When an address is made to a person, the noun 
or pronoun is in the nominative case : — " O thou, who rulest 
the heavens ! " '' O house of Israel ; " '' It must be so, Plato, 
thou reasonest well ; " I am, sir, your obedient servant. 

Note 4. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, and 
standing independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the 
nominative case : — shame being lost, all virtue is lost ; that 
question having been decided, we need not again consider it; 
*' Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, the word of God 
came unto John ; " "I have, notwithstanding this discour- 
agement, attempted a dictionary of the English language." 
This is called the nominative case independent. 

Note 5. Nouns and pronouns following verbs in the pas- 
sive form, when no preposition intervenes, are in the nomina- 
tive case : — the child was named Thomas ; Wellington was 



60 SYNTAX. 

created a duke ; Washington was chosen president ; the gen- 
eral was saluted emperor. 

Note 6. Nouns of measure or dimension, when followed 
by an adjective, or by a preposition and noun of correspond- 
ing import, are in the nominative case : — their march was 
arrested by a wall ten feet high ; this street is twenty yards 
wide ; a town six miles square ; a tree fifty feet in height, and 
three feet in diameter. In such expressions, a relative pro- 
noun and the substantive verb may be supplied : — a wall 
{which was) ten feet high ; a tree {which is) three feet in di- 
ameter. 

Note 7. That the objective case is placed after some in- 
terjections may be stated as an exception to this rule • — Ah 
me ; Oh me, &lc. 

Note 8. The noun or pronoun, which is the nominative 
to a verb, is called the Agent. 



RULE II. 



A verb must agree with its nominative in number and 
person. 

Examples : — I love, thou lovest, he loves ; we love, you 
love, they love. Here each of the pronouns is the nominative 
to the following verb, which, according to the rule, agrees 
with its nominative. The spelling of the verb, in the second 
and third persons singular, is changed to denote this agree- 
ment ; but when it is not changed, the verb is, nevertheless, 
said to be in the same number and person as the nominative. 
When the nominative is a noun, the rule is the same : — a 
man loves ; men love. 

Note 1. When a pronoun and a noun, or two or more 
nouns, stand together, being identical in meaning or repre- 
senting the same thing, the single idea or thing signified pre- 
vails over the several names of the thing, and the verb must 
be in the singular number : — " thou, traitor, deservest death ; " 
*' Jesus Christ, the Son of God and the Saviour of the world, 
is entitled to the veneration of men. 



SYNTAX. 61 

Not % When two or more nouns or pronouns, represent- 
ing different things, are connected by a copulative conjunction, 
expressed or understood, the verb must be in the plural num- 
ber : — Russia, France, and England arc powerful nations; 
" what black despair, what horror^// his mind ! " 

Note 3. When two or more nouns or pronouns, each in 
the singular number, are connected by a disjunctive conjunc- 
tion, the verb must be in the singular : — Neither Alexari' 
der, nor Ccesar, nor Bonaparte, was happy. When either 
of the nominatives is plural, the verb must be plural : — 
neither poverty nor riches loere injurious to him ; but in this 
case the plural noun or pronoun should be placed next to the 
verb. 

Note 4. It is a general rule that the three persons take 
precedence as they are numbered; when, therefore, singular 
nouns or pronouns, of different persons, are connected by 
copidative conjunctions, the verb, which must be plural, 
agrees in person with the nominative of highest rank : — 
James, and thou, and I are attached to our country ; thou 
and he are to share it between you. In the first example are 
is of the first person ; in the last, of the second. When 
nouns or pronouns of different persons are connected by a 
disjunctive conjunction, the verb agrees with the nominative 
placed nearest to it : — I or thou art in fault ; thou or I am in 
fault ; I, or thou, or he is the author of it. 

Note 5. In certain cases, there may be two antecedents of 
different persons, to either of which the relative pronoun may 
be considered as relating. Thus, when a sentence begins — 
"lam the man who" — who maybe considered as in the 
first person agreeing with /, or in the third person agreeing 
with man, as the sense may seem to require ; and of course 
the verb may be in either the first or third person : — I am 
the man who apply, (or applies,) for relief; thou art the hero 
who deservest, (or deserves,) our gratitude. 

Note 6. When a noun of multitude is used, the verb may 
be in either the singular or plural number ; but in some 
cases one is more proper than the other. If the expression 
conveys the idea of plurality, the plural must be used ; if of 
unity, the singular must be used : — the multitude was large ; 
here the multitude is considered as one body : — the multi- 
tude pursue pleasure as their chief good ; here the individuals 
composing the multitude are referred to : — this people 7ms 
become a great nation : my people do not consider, they have 
6 



62 SYNTAX. 

not known me. When a noun of multitude is preceded by a, 
this, every, or any other word distinctly importing one or 
unity, the verb is generally in the singular number : — this 
company is large ; every political party pursues its own inter- 
ests. 

Note 7. In many expressions, the noun which precedes, 
and that which follows, the verb to he, are in the nominative. 
The verb may then agree in number with either ; but taste 
and usage must be consulted in determining with which it 
should agree. It should generally agree with that nomina- 
tive which is nearest, and with the first when both are equally 
near : — " his meat was locusts and wild honey ; " " the 
wages of sin is death ; " words are wind. 

Note 8. The infinitive mode, an indefinite participle, a 
part of a sentence, or several parts of a sentence, may be the 
nominative to a verb : — "to enjoy is to obey ; " walking pro- 
motes health ; a desire to excel others in learning is com- 
mendable ; to be temperate in eating and drinking, to use 
exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind free from 
tumultuous emotions, contribute essentially to the preservation 
of health. 

Note 9. The verb is generally placed next after its nomi- 
native; but in the following, and other similar expressions, it 
is correctly placed before it : — read thou ; confidest thou in 
me ? long live the king ! The nominative is also frequently 
placed after the verb in poetry, and in what is called the 
inverted style : — " Now came still evening on ; " " out jlew 
millions of flaming swords; " " whom ye ignorantly worship, 
him declare I unto you." 

Note 10. The verb is often separated from its nominative 
by one or more clauses of a sentence commencing with a 
relative pronoun : — the man who transgresses shall he pun- 
ished ; Washington, who led our armies to victory, who 
guided our councils in peace, and whom the world so justly 
admires, was good as well as great : — here Washington is 
the nominative to was, who to led, who to guided, and world 
to admires; whom is in the objective case, and is governed 
by admires. 

Note 11. The verb is often separated fi-om the nominative 
when the latter is qualified by an adjective : — he, conscious 
of his innocence, disdained to reply. A different arrange- 
ment would be equally proper : — conscious of his innocence, 
he disdained to reply. 



SYNTAX. 



RULE III. 



63 



Pronouns agree ^vith the nouns for which they stand 
in gender and number ; and relative pronouns agree with 
their antecedents in gender, number, and perspn. 

Examples : — the king was crowned, but he did not reign 
long ; the queen left the kingdom, but she returned soon after ; 
grass, when it is cut and dried, becomes hay ; the wolf and 
the moose were once common in our forests, but they are now 
seldom seen. 

I, who speak from experience ; thou, who lovest wisdom ; 
the stone, which the builders refused. 

Note 1. The pronoun is not always of the same person as 
the noun for which it stands, especially when other words in- 
tervene : — /, who give you this order, am the general who 
commands to-day ; thou who givest this order, art the general 
who commands to-day. In both of these examples, general is 
in the third person, although the pronouns, / and thou, are in 
the first and second. 

Note 2. When a relative pronoun is used in asking a 
question, the noun or pronoun expressing the answer must be 
in the same case : — who gave you that book 1 he gave it to 
me. Of whom did he buy it 1 of the bookseller. Whose hat 
is this ? It is Peter's. Whom do you see ? him of whom we 
spoke ; that is, supplying the ellipsis, I see him of whom we 
spoke. 

Note .3 A pronoun sometimes stands as the representative 
of a part of a sentence : — '' his friend bore the abuse very 
patiently, which served to increase his rudeness ; " " bodies, 
which have no taste, and no power of affecting the skin, may, 
notwithstanding this, act upon organs which are more deli- 
cate." 

Note 4. When the relativeis in the objective case, it is 
always placed before the verb and its nominative : — he whom 
you seek ; the tree which the lightning struck ; who, that God 
loves, can complain of affliction T 



6^4 SYNTAX. 



RULE IV. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Examples : — he loves her ; they struck him ; do yon 
credit the remrt 7 the stone weighs a hundred pounds. 

Note 1. Transitive verbs sometimes govern two objective 
words : — he taught his pupils the art of reasoning ; the ring 
cost the purchaser an eagle; they called him ^ John ; they 
appointed him captain; all Europe feared Bonaparte, the 
emperor of the French and ^/zio" of Italy. In these and similar 
cases, there is no ellipsis of the verb which governs the first 
noun. In such expressions as the following, there is an ellip- 
sis, or omission, of the verb before each noun : — Charles the 
Fifth governed Spain, Holland, and Germany. It is not usual 
in parsing to supply the verb, but to consider each noun as 
governed by the verb expressed. 

Note 2. Transitive verbs sometimes govern two nouns or 
pronouns which have the verb to he, and some other intransi- 
tive verbs, in the infinitive mode, between them : — believe 
that man to be your friend, who adheres to you in adversity ; 
did you suppose him to be me 1 they wished him to continue 
their friend. This remark applies also to the interrogative 
sentences where the relative is placed before the verb : — 
whom did you suppose me to be 1 

Note 3. The same verb is sometim.es transitive and some- 
times intransitive : — to live righteously ; here live is intran- 
sitive and has no object after it : — to live a life of virtue ; 
here live is transitive and governs life : — the forest extends to 
the western boundary of the state ; the prisoner extended his 
arms, crying for mercy. 

Note 4. As a sentence, or part of a sentence, is sometimes the 
nominative of a verb, so it is sometimes the object or regimen of 
a transitive verb : — he declined going to Boston ; suppose then 
the world lue live in to havehad a creator ; I admit all, except 
speaking the words set forth in the first part of the indict Jiient ; 
you must not disclose who did it; here must disclose is tran- 
sitive, and the object or regimen is not ivho, but the clause, 
who did it. It sometimes also follows a noun in the posses- 
sive case : — he was averse to the nation's involving itself in 
war; he can have no notion of a ^^qtsoh's possessing so many 
different accomplishments. The infinitive mode^ and the 



SYNTAX. 65 

indefinite participle, may also be the object or regimen of a 
verb : -^ he deserves to die ; he dreaded dying more than 
death. 

Note 5. The objective case is usually placed after the verb 
which governs it; but the relative pronoun, when in that 
case, is placed before it : — choose ye, this day, whom ye will 
serve ; the events, which I have seen, I will describe. It is 
often placed before it in the inverted style : — she, with ex- 
tended arms, his aid implores ; whom ye ignorantly worship, 
Mm declare I unto you. 

Note 6. Transitive verbs, in the passive form, do not, 
generally speaking, govern the objective case. When, how- 
ever, a verb, which may govern two nouns in the objective 
case, according to the first example in Note 1, is used in the 
passive form, it may sometimes have one noun following it in 
that case : — his pupils were taught the art of reasoning ; 
they were told the whole story. But such expressions, if 
grammatical, are not always elegant. 



RULE V. 



Indefinite and indefinite past participles of transitive 
verbs govern the objective case. 

Examples : — As soon as the traveller arrived, his friends 
were seen embracing him and welcoming him home; they 
found him transgressing the laws ; having conquered the 
enemy, he returned home. 

Note 1. Participles generally belong to some noun or pro- 
noun expressed or understood ; but they are sometimes used 
indefinitely, and without being thus connected : — It is not 
possible to act otherwise, considering the weakness of our 
nature ; " and he said unto them, hinder me not, seeing the 
Lord hath prospered my way ;" " generally speaking, the 
heir at kw is not bound by the intention of the testator ; " 
''granting this to be true, it does not affect the case;" " E 
speak concerning Christ and the church." 

Note % The indefinite participle may be the nomina- 
tive of a verb, and the regimen of a verb or preposition : — 
6 * 



66 SYNTAX. 

writing carefully leads to writing well ; it is best to avoid 
talking rudely ; you may reach the island by swimming. In 
such cases, the participles are not used as nouns, as some 
grammarians assert ; they rather resemble verbs in the infini- 
tive mode. 

Note 3. By placing some of the defining adjectives before, 
and the preposition of after, an indefinite participle, the par- 
ticiple is changed into a noun : — " the repenting of sinners 
gives joy in heaven ;" a withholding of assistance ; this re- 
joicing of his people was grateful to the king. 

Note 4. Care should be taken not to use the past tense for 
the past participle of irregular verbs. This error is frequently 
committed. 



RULE VI. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Examples : — he gave the letter to me ; I took the book 
from them ; they travelled loith us ; he went from New York 
to Boston by land. 

Note 1. The preposition is generally placed before the 
noun or pronoun which it governs ; but sometimes it is placed 
after it and at a distance : — Whom will you give it to ? the 
man lohom I travelled loith was agreeable. This arrange- 
ment is admissible in conversation ; but in writing it would 
be more elegant to place the words in their natural order ; 
thus: — to 7ohom will you give it? with whom I travelled. 
The following is another example of the separation of a prep- 
osition from the noun which it governs; — he departed for, 
but never arrived at, the East Indies. This, though gram- 
matical, is not elegant. 

Note 2. Prepositions are often omitted : — give it me ; 
that is, to me : Imy him some books ; that is, for him ; I will 
wait all the week ; that is, through all the week : a horse can 
run a mile in three minutes ; that is, through or over the ex- 
tent of a mile. When the noun home follows verbs of motion, 
a preposition is seldom used, but must be understood. 

Note 3. An indefinite participle, or a part of a sentence, 
is sometimes the regimen of a pre}x>sition : — A German in- 
vented the art of printing ; he accomplished his purpose by 
observing these rules and precautions ; he was prevented from 
conquering the Russian empire. 



SYNTAX. 67 



RULE VII. 

Adjectives generally belong to nouns or pronouns which 
they qualify or define, and should be placed near to them. 

Examples : — a strong man ; a beautiful woman ; he is 
unfit to be the ruler of a free people ; this prospect is delight- 
ful beyond expression. 

Note 1. The adjective is usually placed before the noun 
to which it belongs ; but it may be placed after it, 

1 . AVhen several adjectives belong to one noun : — a 
prince rJiscreet, just, and benevolent, 

2. When something depends on the adjective : — feed 
me with food convenient for rae. 

3. When an adjective is used as a title, or is emphati- 
cal : — Alexander the great ; goodness infinite. 

4. When an adjective is preceded by an adverb : — a 
boy regularly studious. 

5. When the action of a transitive verb produces the 
quality described : — vanity renders its possessor despicable. 

Note 2. Adjectives are sometimes used, like adverbs, to 
modify verbs, especially in poetry ; — " drink deep or taste 
not the Pierian spring ; " " heaven opened wide her ever- 
during gates." But this use of adjectives for adverbs is a 
violation of grammatical propriety, and is seldom allowable. 

Note 3. Adjectives are used to (jualify verbs in the infin- 
itive mode, and parts of sentences : — to see is pleasant ; to 
be a coward is disgraceful ; agreeable to this we read of names 
being blotted out of God^s booh; he may have intended to 
shew me the paper ; but that he did not do so, is certain. 

Note 4. Some adjectives are used to qualify others : — 
a green silk bonnet ; a red hot Russia iron bar. In the last 
example, the adjective a defines the noun bar, red qualifies 
hot, Russia qualifies or defines frow ; and iro?i qualifies bar. 

Note 5. Adjectives are often used indefinitely, no noun 
being expressed, and no particular noun being understood : 
— " mani/ are called, hnifeic chosen ; " " none but the brave 
deserve the fair." In such cases, they stand in the place of 
nouns, and the verb is generally plural. 



68 SYNTAX. 

Note 6. They are often used in a still more indefinite 
manner, especially when they follow verbs in the infinitive 
mode : — to be good is to be happy ; to be blind is calami- 
tous ; to live happy is the desire of all men. 



RULE VIII. 



Adverbs belong to verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, the meaning of which they modify, and near 
to which they should be placed. 

Examples : — that lady walks gracefully ; the troops were 
seen marching rapidly towards the river ; words Jitly spoken ; 
the king became extremely odious to the people ; he spoke 
very eloquently. 

Note 1. When an auxiliary is used, the adverb is com- 
monly placed between the auxiliary and the principal verb r 
— I have often seen him; she is much admired. When two 
auxiliaries are used, the adverb is commonly placed after the 
second : — they have heen properly punished. But in regard 
to the position of adverbs no invariable rule can be given. 
They must be so placed, however, that the reader will at 
once understand which word they are intended to modify. 

Note 2. Two negatives, whether adverbs or not, when 
used in the same sentence, destroy each other, and the ex- 
pression is affirmative : — nor did they not perceive him : 
that is no wwcommon occurrence. 

Note 3. Adverbs and adjectives so nearly resemble each 
other, that the former are often improperly used for the latter. 



RULE IX. 



The several parts of a sentence should correspond to 
each other, and the relations of time, contrast, and compar- 
ison be carefially observed. 



SYNTAX. 69 

Examples of the violation of this rule will best explain its 
meaning and show its importance : — "a beautiful field and 
trees ; " here a beautiful cannot refer to trees ; the repetition 
of beautiful alone before trees will render the sentence cor- 
rect, for that will lead the hearer to understand that the adjec- 
tive a is dropped ; a beautiful field and beautiful trees. 

" The court of chancery mitigates and breaks the teeth of 
the common law." The natural construction of this sentence 
is, that the court mitigates the teeth, &.c. If it should be 
desirable to make use of these words, they might, to express 
what was probably intended, be arranged thus : — " the court 
of chancery mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth 
of it. 

The relations of time should be observed by the use of the 
proper tenses ; and to ascertain what tenses should be used, 
it is necessary to fix in the mind the time, or relative time, 
of the actions described by each verb in the sentence, or 
specified by other words : — "I feared that I should have lost 
the parcel before I arrived at the city ; " here the appre- 
hended loss must have been subsequent to the fear, but should 
have lost does not convey that idea. It should be, I feared 
that I should lose the parcel, &/C. 

" I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when I 
was in trouble." The vows were uttered when (at the same 
time) he was in trouble ; both verbs should therefore be in the 
same tense : — which my lips uttered. 

" It would have afforded me satisfaction, if I could perform 
it." The satisfaction could not have been previous to the 
performance ; but the tense used denotes a previous time. The 
sentence would be rendered grammatically correct by chang- 
ing either of the tenses ; — it would afford — or, if I covtd 
have performed it. 

" There was a time when I intended to have written." The 
time of writing must have been subsequent to the intention : 
— intended to write. 

" This is a book which proves itself to be written by the 
person whose name it bears." The book must have been 
written before the time denoted by the verb proves : — to 
have been ivritten is the proper tense. 

"They have resided in Italy until a few months ago." 
The clause, a few months ago, separates, from the present 
time, the time to which the verb refers, and the use of the 
present past tense is therefore improper; the past tense„ 
resided, should have been used. 



70 



SYNTAX. 



The relations of contrast and comparison are generally ex- 
pressed by adjectives, adverbs or conjunctions. Most of the 
words used for this purpose have corresponding words, both 
of which should generally be used when either is. Thus, 
same requires as or that — such, so much, as much, and as 
many require as — adjectives and adverbs in the compara- 
tive degree require than — as requires as or that — neither 
requires nor — either requires or — though requires yet or 
nevertheless. 

The following sentence, therefore, violates the rule above 
given : — he was more beloved, but not so much admired, as 
Cinthio. Here more is not followed by its corresponding 
word than. The sentence may be corrected thus : — he was 
more beloved than, but not so much admired as Cinthio ; or 
better thus : — he was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so 
much admired ; — as Cinthio being understood at the end. 

In the following sentences the rule is violated : 

Neither the cold or (nor) the fervid, but characters uni- 
formly warm, are formed for friendship. 

The dog in the manger would not (neither) eat the hay 
himself, nor suffer the ox to eat it. 

They had no sooner risen, but (than) they applied them- 
selves to their studies. 

Be ready to succour such persons who (as) need your 
assistance. 

He is a better, but not so able a man, as the other. 

Our laws are not the same, they are better than those of 
England. 



DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 

Parsing is an exercise prescribed to the scholar for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining the progress he has made in the study of 
Grammar, of rendering more familiar to him the knowledge 
he has acquired, and of enabling him to apply it. It is of use 
moreover to fix the attention, and contributes to improve the 
mental faculties. 



PARSING. 71 



George struck me. 

" George " is a proper noun in the singular number, third 
person, masculine gender, and nominative case ; " struck " is 
a transitive verb in the indicative mode, past tense, third per- 
son, singular number, and agrees with George, its nomina- 
tive ; " me " is a personal pronoun in the first person, singular 
number, objective case, and is governed by the transitive 
veirb, struck. 

Vice produces misery. 

" Vice " is a common noun in the singular number, third 
person, neuter gender, and nominative case ; ''produces" is 
a transitive verb in the indicative mode, present tense, third 
person, singular number, and agrees with its nominative, vice ; 
*' misery" is a common noun in the singular number, third 
person, neuter gender, objective case, and is governed by 
produces. 

Peace and joy are virtue's crown. 

'' Peace " is a common noun in the singular number, third 
person, neuter gender, and nominative case ; " and " is a 
copulative conjunction ; " joy " is a common noun, &.c. ; (the 
number, person, gender, and case, should be mentioned by 
the scholar) ; " are " is an intransitive verb in the indicative 
mode, present tense, third person, plural number, and agrees 
with peace andjoy; ''virtue's" is a common noun in the sin- 
gular number, neuter gender, third person, and possessive 
case ; " crown " is a common noun in the singular number, 
third person, neuter gender, and nominative case, being pre- 
ceded by nre, an intransitive verb. 

Neither vice nor folly confers happiness. 

*' Neither " is a disjunctive conjunction ; " vice " is a com- 
mon noun, &c. ; " nor" is a disjunctive conjunction ; "folly" 
is a common noun, d^c. ; "confers" is a transitive verb in the 
indicative mode, present tense, third person, singular number, 
and agress with vice and folly, each separately, they being 
connected by a disjunctive conjunctipn ; " happiness " is a 
common noun in the neuter gender, singular number, third 
person, and objective case, and is ifoverned by confers. 



72 PARSING. 



They saw him pursuing the deer. 

"They" is a personal pronoun in the third person, plural 
number, and nominative case ; " saw " is a transitive verb in 
the indicative mode, past tense, third person, plural number, 
and agrees with they ; " him " is a personal pronoun in the 
third person, singular number, masculine gender, objective 
case, and is governed by saw ; " pursuing " is an indefinite 
participle derived from to pursue, a transitive verb, and relates 
or belongs to him ; " the " is a defining adjective, and belongs 
to deer ; " deer " is a common noun in the third person, 
common gender, either number, objective case, and is governed 
by pursuing. 

The boy will not be pardoned unless he should repent. 

" The " is a defining adjective and belongs to the noun, 
hoy ; "boy" is a common noun, &c. ; " will be pardoned" 
is a verb in the passive form, indicative mode, future tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with hoy ; " not " 
is an adverb, and modifies ivill he pardoned; "unless" is a 
disjunctive conjunction ; " he " is a personal pronoun in the 
third person, masculine gender, singular number, nominative 
case, and agrees with hoy ; " should repent " is an intransi- 
tive verb in the conditional mode, indefinite tense, third per- 
son, singular number, and agrees with he. Should is often 
omitted, in similar expressions, but must be supplied in 
parsing. 

Good works being neglected, devotion is false. 

" Good " is a qualifying adjective and belongs to works ; 
" works" is a common noun, &c. ; " being neglected" is an 
indefinite participle in the passive form, and relates to works ; 
this clause standing independent of the rest of the sentence, 
the noun, luorks, is in the nominative case independent ; 
" devotion " is a common noun, &/C. , " is " is an intransitive 
verb, &.C. ; " false " is a qualifying adjective, and belongs to 
devotion. 

To err is human. 

" To err " is a verb in the infinitive mode, and indefinite 
tense ; "is" is an intransitive verb, &/C., and agrees with to 
err^ its nominative ; " human " is a qualifying adjective, and 
belongs to to err. 



PARSING. 



73 



To countenance men, who are guilty of wicked actions, 
is highly criminal. 

" To countenance " is a transitive verb in the infinitive 
mode, indefinite tense ; " men " is a common noun, &,c. ; 
*' who" is a relative personal pronoun in the third person, plu- 
ral number, masculine gender, nominative case, and agrees 
with meriy its antecedent ; " are" is an intransitive verb, &c. ; 
** guilty " is a qualifying adjective and belongs to men; " of" 
is a preposition ; *' wicked " is a qualifying adjective and be- 
longs to actions ; " actions " is a common noun in the third 
person, plural number, neuter gender, objective case, and 
governed by of; *'to countenance men who are guilty of 
wicked actions," being part of a sentence, is the nominative to 
is; "is" is an intransitive verb, &c., and agrees with the 
foregoing part of the sentence, which is its nominative; 
*' highly" is an adverb and modifies criminal; "criminal" is 
a qualifying adjective, and belongs to or qualifies the first part 
of the sentence. 

Let me proceed. 

" Let " is a transitive verb in the imperative mode ; " me " 
is a personal pronoun in the first person, singular number, 
objective case, and governed by let; " proceed " is an intran- 
sitive verb in the infinitive mode, indefinite tense, the sign to 
being omitted. 

He may go if he can. 

*'Maygo"is an intransitive verb in the potential mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with 
he; "can go" {go being understood) is an intransitive verb 
in the potential mode, present tense, third person, singular 
number, and agrees with the second he. 

He might walk if he would. 

" Might walk " is an intransitive verb in the conditional 
mode, indefinite tense, third person, singular number, and 
agrees with he ; " would walk," {walk being understood) is 
an intransitive verb in the conditional mode, indefinite tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with the second he* 
7 



74 PARSING. 



If you had visited him, he would have been glad to see you. 

" Had visited " is a transitive verb in the indicative mode, 
prior past tense, second person, plural number, and agrees 
with you ; " would have been " is an intransitive verb in the 
conditional mode, past tense, third person, singular number, 
and agrees with he. 

This worthy clergyman had been preaching the Gospel, and 
had made many converts by explaining clearly and 
eloquently its true principles. 

"This" is a defining adjective, and refers to clergyman ; 
"had been preaching" is a verb from to preach, in the indefi- 
nite active conjugation, indicative mode, prior past tense, 
third person, singular, and agrees with clergyman; " explain- 
ing clearly and eloquently its true principles " is the regimen 
of by ; " principles " is a common noun, &c., and is governed 
by explaining. 

Wait the great teacher, death, and God adore. 

" Wait," as here used, is a transitive verb in the imperative 
mode ; " the " is a defining adjective and belongs to teacher ; 
"great" is a qualifying adjective and belongs to teacher; 
" teacher " and " death " are common nouns, each signifying 
the same thing, in the singular number, neuter gender, objec- 
tive case, and governed by wait; " and" is a copulative con- 
junction ; " adore " is a transitive verb in the imperative mode ; 
"^God " is a proper noun, in the singular number, masculine 
gender, objective case, and governed by adore. 

Time flies, O how swifi;ly ! 

" Time " is a common noun, &c. ; " flies" is'an intransitive 
verb, &C. ; " O " is an interjection ; " how " is an adverb, 
and modifies swiftly ; " swiftly " is an adverb and modifies 
jlies. 

There the wicked cease fi-om troubling, and there the weary 
be at rest. 

" Wicked " is an adjective used as a noun ; " cease " is an 
intransitive verb in the indicative mode, present tense, third 



PARSING. 75 

person, plural number, and agrees with wicked; *' troubling" 
is an indefinite participle, and is governed by, or is the regi- 
men of, the preposition /rww ; " weary " is an adjective used 
as a noun ; " be " is an intransitive verb in the indicative 
mode, present tense, third person, plural number, and agrees 
with weary. 

The sun, the centre of the universe, and the fountain of 
light, is the largest of the heavenly bodies. 

" Sun," " centre," and " fountain " are common nouns, 
all meaning the same thing, and therefore constitute a nomi- 
native in the singular number ; '' is " is an intransitive verb 
in the singular number, &c., and agrees with sun^ centre^ 
BXidi fountain. 

A green coarse India silk umbrella, four feet in diameter. 

*' A " is a defining adjective and belongs to umbrella ; 
'' green " and '' coarse " are qualifying adjectives and belong 
to silk; "India" is a defining adjective, and belongs to 
silk; "silk" is a defining adjective and belongs to um- 
brella; "umbrella" is a common noun, &c. ; "four "is a 
defining adjective, and belongs to feet ; " feet " is a common 
noun in the third person, neuter gender, plural number, and 
nominative case ; " in " is a preposition ; " diameter " is a 
common noun in the objective case, &c., and governed by in 



If he make the attempt he may succeed. 

e " is a 
; tense, 
being understood. 



" Make " is a transitive verb in the conditional mode, 
indefinite tense, third person, singular number — - should 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Appropriate sentences are placed under each rule ; but in 
arranging them, the order of the notes has been purposely 
disregarded, that some opportunity might be afforded for 
exercising the scholar's ingenuity. 



76 PARSING. 



RULE I. 



All nouns and pronouns, not governed hy a transitive 
verb, participle, or preposition, are in the nominative case. 

Great Britain is not so large a country as France. 

He studies constantly, 

Alexander conquered the Persians. 

Not all who say unto me. Lord, Lord, shall enter into the 
kingdom of heaven. 

He slew a giant seven cubits and a span high. 

Solomon was constituted umpire. 

The United States having adopted a constitution, the 
nations of Europe treated the new republic with respect. 

The tree which is twelve feet in circumference is about 
four feet in diameter. 

How art thou, my brother 1 



RULE IL 

A verb must agree with its nominative in number and 
person. 

Experience teaches many useful lessons. 

In the path of life are many thorns as well as ffowers. 

He and I have resolved to be studious. 

Food, clothing, and credit are the rewards of industry. 

That harsh schoolmaster, experience, teaches us prudence. 

Neither wealth, nor virtue, nor any valuable acqusition is 
attainable by idle wishes. 

The people were happy under his administration. 

To discover the secrets of nature requires patient study and 
profound meditation. 

A large fleet, under full sail, presents a magnificent spec- 
tacle. 

If our friend is in trouble, we, whom he knows and loves, 
may console him. 



PARSING. 77 

Washington, having performed his whole duty, retired to 
private life. 

To thee the world its present homage pays. 
Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend. 



RULE III. 



Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in 
gender and number ; and relative pronouns agree with 
their antecedents in gender, number, and person. 

True happiness, which all desire, must be sought within. 

In the evening, the emperor gave orders to attack the 
enemy in the morning, and then he retired to rest. 

He spoke to the woman, saying to her, be of good cheer. 

The republic, which may choose its rulers, and chooses 
bad men, deserves to suffer. 

O thou, who rulest in Heaven ! 

Whom didst thou find at home ? My father and mother. 

The mob have determined to attack him, and he, aware of 
that, has concealed himself 

Distrust what charms the senses. 



RULE IV. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Vice and folly debase us. 
Love of country ennobles the heart. 
I desired him to stand my friend in the day of trouble. 
Charles the Twelfth taught Peter the Great, his rival and 
enemy, the art of war. 

Some boys play with more energy than they work. 
I was studying my lesson when the master arrived. 
7 * 



78 PARSING. 

To play at ball is conducive to health. 

The king could not avoid granting the demands of his 
people. 

Should you travel from France to Sweden, you could not i 
well avoid passing through Holland. m 

The guilt, which others know not, is not unpunished. 

There slaves once more their native land behold. 

In barbarous ages, woman is made the slave of man ; in 
civilized ages, she becomes his companion ; in ages of luxu- 
rious refinement, she revenges the wrongs which were inflicted 
upon the sex in the ages of barbarism. 



RULE V. 



Indefinite and indefinite past participles govern the 
objective case. 

Obeying him who came to save the world, he returns bene- 
fits for injuries. 

The time of the singing of birds has come. 

Having performed all his duties, the good man retires to 
prepare for existence beyond the grave. 

Allowing all he says to be true, his conduct is not justifi- 
able. 

Walking briskly promotes health ; but, sauntering listlessly 
on the banks of purling streams meandering through shady 
groves, physicians never recommend. 



RULE VI. 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

My brother travelled through France, Italy, and Spain. 
I hope it is not I with whom he is displeased. 



PARSING. 79 

He boldly drew up his army, and offered his enemy the 
choice of battle or retreat. 

It is not you that I am displeased with. 

By returning injuries for injuries, you perpetuate strife ; by 
continually submitting to insults, you invite them. 

I do not assent to, I dissent from, your proposition. 



RULE VII. 



Adjectives generally belong to nouns or pronouns which 
they qualify or define, and should be placed near to them. 

The prospect of lofty, precipitous mountains gives greater 
delight to the resident of crowded cities, than to the industri- 
ous laborer in the fields with whom it is familiar. 

Every man and every woman was numbered. 

This beautiful tree adds to the value of your estate. 

The courageous often escape when the cowardly fall. 

To betray a friend is disgraceful. 

I bought a beautiful yellow mahogany writing-desk for 
forty York shillings. 

China ware is now made in England. 



RULE VIIL 



Adverbs belong to verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, the meaning of which they modify, and 
near to which they should be placed. 

We may live happily, though our possessions are small. 
A word of reproof properly spoken may save a youth from 
ruin. 

His conduct was not so criminal as disgusting. 
He has always been supposed to be honest. 
He has been supposed to be always honest. 
Reasoning thus is reasoning soundly. 



so PARSING. 



RULE IX, 

The several parts of a sentence should correspond to 
each other, and the relations 0/ time, contrast, and comr 
parison, should be carefully observed, 

I intended to comply with your request last week. 

The king insisted that his order should be obeyed. 

I saw my friend yesterday, and I rejoiced to see him. 

I rejoiced to have heard of the misfortunes of my friend 
before I saw him, for I then knew in what manner to treat 
him. 

As soon as he shall have arrived at Boston, he wDl write 
to you. 

If you should see my brother, to-morrow, tell him that I am 
well. 

He should have crossed the river last night, if he could. 

After I left my gloomy prison, I thought that to see green 
fields, waving woods, and cheerful faces afforded the greatest 
pleasure that man could enjoy. 

My youngest brother has travelled through France and 
Italy ; my oldest brother, who is dead, travelled in Spain and 
Portugal. 

The preacher oflen reminded his hearers, that all men are 
mortal. 

A contented temper brightens every object. 

He is bolder and more active than his companion, but not 
so studious. 

Alexander had not so many soldiers as Darius, but they 
were braver. 



PARSING. 81 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

The folloiuing sentences contain words which helongy 
sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another, 

I fear my God, and have no other fear. 

The Israelites were accustomed to stone criminals to death. 

David killed Goliah with a stone. 

There are, on that road, a large number of stone bridges. 

Religion calms boisterous passions. 

After a storm comes a calm. 

A fair wind and a calm sea render a voyage delightful. 

I requested him to forward the goods by the packet. 

An honest man may look forward with cheering hopes. 

The ladies were then in the forward cabin. 

I ask it as a favor, not as a right. 

The bee, it is said, flies in a right line. 

"I right such wrongs where they are given." 

It is not enough to determine right ; you mus^; act as you 
determine. 

It is evident that, as all men are sinners, so all must sufTer. 

That day will assuredly come. 

Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. 

He labored to still the tumult. 

Still waters are commonly deepest. 

I will submit, for I know submission brings peace. 

I have a regard for him. 

Yesterday was a fine day. 

I rode out yesterday. 

It is my opinion that that that that that grammarian pro- 
nounced a conjunction is an adjective. 



I have been, for more than forty years, a close observer of 
life and manners in various parts of the United States, and I 
know not the evil that will bear a moment's comparison with 
intemperance. It is no exaggeration to say, as has been 
often said, that this single cause has produced more vice. 



82 PARSING. 

crime, poverty, and wretchedness, in every form, domestic 
and social, than all the other ills that scourge us combined. 
In truth, it is scarcely possible to meet with misery in any 
shape, in this country, which will not be found, on examina- 
tion, to have proceeded, directly or indirectly, from the exces- 
sive use of ardent spirits. 

Want is one of its immediate consequences. The sad 
spectacle of starving and destitute families, and of ignorant, 
half-naked, vicious children, ought never to be presented in 
a country like this, where the demand for labor is constant, 
the field unlimited, the sources of supply inexhaustible, and 
where there are none to make us afraid ; and it never would 
be presented, or very rarely indeed, were it not for the deso- 
lation brought upon families by the general use of this deadly 
poison. It paralyzes the arm, the brain, the heart. All the 
best affections, all the energies of the mind wither under its 
influence. The man becomes a maniac, and is locked up in 
a hospital, or imbrues his hands in the blood of his wife and 
children, and is sent to the gallows or doomed to the peni- 
tentiary; or, if he escapes these consequences, he becomes a 
walking pestilence on the earth, miserable in himself, and 
loathsome to all who behold him. 

How often do we see, too, whole families contaminated by 
the vicious example of the parent ; husbands, wives, daugh- 
ters, and sons, all drunkards and furies : sometimes wives 
murdering their husbands ; at others husbands their wives; 
and, worst of all, if worse can be in such a group of horrors, 
children murdering their parents. But below this grade of 
crime, how much is there of unseen and untold misery, 
throughout our otherwise happy land, proceeding from this 
fatal cause alone. I am persuaded that if we could have a 
statistical survey and report of the affairs of unhappy families, 
and individuals, with the causes of their misery annexed, we 
should find nine cases out of ten, if not a still greater propor- 
tion, resulting from the use of ardent spirits alone. 

With this conviction, which seems to have become univer- 
sal among reflecting men, the apathy shown to the continu- 
ance of the evil can only be ascribed to the circumstance, 
that the mischief, though verbally admitted, is not seen and 
felt in all its enormity. If some fatal plague, of a contagious 
character, were imported into our country, and had com- 
menced its ravages in our cities, we should see the most 
prompt and vigorous measures at once adopted to repress and 
extinguish it : but what are the most fearful plagues that 



PARSING. 83 

ever carried death and havoc in their train through the east- 
ern countries, compared with this? They are only occa- 
sional ; this is perennial. They are confined by climate or 
place ; this malady is of all climates, and all times and places. 
They kill the body at once ; this consumes both body and 
soul by a lingering and dreadful death, involving the dearest 
connections in the vortex of ruin. 

What parent, however exemplary himself, can ever feel 
that his son is safe while the living fountain of poison is within 
his reach ? God grant that it may soon become a fountain 
sealed, in our country at least. What a relief, what a de- 
lightful relief, would it be to turn from the awful and horrid 
past, to the pure, peaceful, and happy future ! to see the 
springs of life, and feeling, and intelligence renewed on every 
hand; health, industry, and prosperity glowing around us; 
the altars of domestic peace and love rekindled in every 
family ; and the religion of the Saviour presented with a fair 
field for its celestial action. 

O how canst thou renounce the boundless store 
Of charms which nature to her votary yields ! 
The warbling woodland, the resounding shore, 
The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields ; 
All that the genial ray of morning gilds, 
And all that echoes to the song of even. 
All that the mountain's sheltering bosom shields, 
And all the dread magnificence of heaven, 
O how canst thou renounce and hope to be forgiven ! 



It was not by vile loitering m ease. 
That Greece obtained the brighter palm of art, 
That soft yet ardent Athens learn'd to please. 
To keen the wit, and to sublime the heart. 
In all supreme ! complete in every part ! 
It was not thence majestic Rome arose. 
And o'er the nations shook her conquering dart : 
For sluggard's brow the laurel never grows ; 
Renown is not the child of indolent repose. 

Would you then learn to dissipate the band 
Of the huge threatening difficulties dire, 
That in the weak man's way like lions stand, 
His soul appal, and damp his rising fire 1 



84 PARSING. 

Resolve, resolve, and to be men aspire. 
Exert that noblest privilege, alone 
Here to mankind indulged : control desire : 
Let godlike reason, from her sovereign throne, 
Speak the commanding word — I will! — and it is done. 

If ceaseless, thus, the fowls of heav'n He feeds, 
If o'er the fields such lucid robes He spreads ; 
Will He not care for you, ye faithless, say ; 
Is He unwise 1 or are ye less than they ? 

Who lives to nature rarely can be poor : 
Who lives to fancy never can be rich. 



Lord ! thou hast searched and seen me through 
Thine eye commands, with piercing view, 
My waking and my sleeping hours, 
My heart and flesh, with all their powers. 

My thoughts, before they are my own, 
Are to my God distinctly known : 
He knows the words I mean to speak 
Ere from my opening lips they break. 

Within thy circling power I stand ; 
On every side I find thy hand : 
Awake, asleep, at home, abroad, 
I am surrounded still with God. 

Could I so false, so faithless prove. 
To quit thy service and thy love. 
Where, Lord, could I thy influence shun, 
Or whither from thy presence run ? 

Could I the wings of morning gain. 
And fly beyond the western main. 
Thy swifter hand would first arrive. 
And there arrest the fugitive. 

Or should I try to shun thy sight 
Beneath the speading veil of night, 
One glance of thine, one piercing ray. 
Would kindle darkness into day. 



PARSING. 

O may these thoughts possess my breast, 
Where'er I rove, where'er I rest ! 
Nor let my weaker passions dare 
Consent to sin ; for God is there. 

Oft pining cares in rich brocades are dress'd, 
And diamonds glitter on an anxious breast. 

Decks the spring with flowers the field ? 
Harvest rich doth autumn yield ? 
Giver of all good below ! 
Lord, from thee these blessings flow. 



VIOLATIONS OF SYNTAX. 

In each of the following sentences, the Rule of Syntax, 
under which it is arranged, is violated. 



RULE L 

I would act the same part, if I were him. 

It could not have been her, for she always behaves dis- 
creetly. 

Be not afraid ; it is me. 

Search the Scriptures ; they are them which testify of me. 

After all their professions, is it possible to be them 1 

Flee thee away into the land of Judah. 

I cannot tell whom thou art. 

My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 

Was any person besides the mercer present ? Yes, both 
him and his clerk. 

8 



86 PARSING. 



RULE 11. 



The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally ue 
known a few centuries ago. 

O thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

What black despair, what horror fills his mind ! 

The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the 
object of the shepherd's care. 

If he understand the business, he is precisely the man 
whom we ought to employ. 

Whether he improve or not, I cannot determine. 

Unless the accountant deceive me, my estate is considera- 
bly improved. 

If thou censure uncharitably, thou deservest no favor. 

I thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. 

If Charlotte desire to obtain esteem and love, she does not 
employ the proper means. 

Whether he think as he speaks, or not, time will discover. 

If he have a preference, why does he not avow it ? 

Whether he live here or not, I cannot say. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays 
inattention or ill humor, are certainly criminal. 

Whether one person or more was concerned in the busi- 
ness, does not appear. 

Either thou or I art mistaken. 

Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water teem with life. 



RULE III. 

They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 

The exercise of reason appears as little in these sportsmen, 
as in the beasts whom they sometimes hunt, and by whom 
they are sometimes hunted. 



PARSING. 8T 

Each of them in their turn receives the benefits to which 
they are entitled. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. 

Of whom were the articles bought ? Of a mercer ; he who 
resides near the mansion house. 



RULE IV. 

Who have I reason to love so much as this friend of my 
youth ? 

He and they we know, but who are you ? 

She that is idle and mischievous reprove sharply. 

Who did they send to him on that errand ? 

He invited my brother and I to see and examine his library. 

We should fear and obey the Author of our being, even He 
who has power to punish and reward us. 

Who do you see 1 

If she had known whom he was. 



RULE V. 

Suspecting not only you, but they also, I was studious to 
avoid all intercourse. 

By pursuing too eagerly, he run a great risk of being dis- 
appointed. 

He had not long enjoyed repose, before he begun to be 
weary of having nothing to do. 

He would have went with us had he been invited. 

He had mistook his true interest and found himself forsook 
by all his former adherents. 

His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight oppo- 
sition. 

Having wrote the letter, he sealed it and sent it to his 
friend, 



88 



PARSING. 



RULE VI. 



Does that boy know who he speaks to T 

Who does he offer such language to 1 

It was not he that they were so angry with. 

What concord can subsist between them who commit 
crimes and they who abhor them 1 

Who did you give the letter to ? To a little girl ; she who 
came for it. 



RULE VII. 

The small ships went into port ; so that large ships were at 
sea only in the winter. 

Strong and more strong thy passions rule. 

She writes very neat and composes accurate. 

They generally succeeded, for they lived conformable to the 
rules of prudence. 

He behaved himself submissive and was exceeding careful 
not to give offence. 

The conspiracy was the easier discovered from its being 
known to many. 

Such corrections have been made as alone seemed neces- 
sary to fit the manuscript for the press. 

Not to exasperate him, I only spoke a very few words. 



RULE VIII. 

Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine often 
infirmities. 

He addressed several observations to them suitably to their 
circumstances. 



PARSING. S9 

Conformably to their vehemence of thought was their vehe- 
mence of gesture. 

We should implant in the minds of youth such seeds of 
piety as are like to take soonest and deepest root. 

Most nations, not even excepting the Jews, were prone to 
idolatry. 

Raised to greatness without merit, he employed his power 
for the gratification solely of his passions. 

By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
object, but the largeness of a whole view. 



RULE IX. 

Alternate light and gloom overshadowed the land. 

Did he not tell me his fault and entreated me to forgive 
him? 

Several alterations and additions have been made to the 
work. 

By intercourse with wise and experienced persons we may 
improve and rub off the rust of a private and retired educa- 
tion. 

Whatever we do secretly shall be heard and displayed in 
the clearest light. 

The next new year's day, I shall be at school three years. 

I have compassion on the multitude because they continue 
with me now three days. 

Fierce as he moved, his silver shafts resound. 

John will earn his wages when his service is completed. 

I have been at London a year and seen the king last 
summer. 

I intend to go to Savannah, in a few months, and after I 
shall finish my business there, to proceed to Jamaica. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according to 
his merit. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

The doctor, in his lecture, said that fever always pro- 
duced thirst. 

He would have assisted one of his friends, if he could do it 
without injuring the other. 
8* 



90 PARSING, 

I shall walk in the fields to day unless it rains. 

Let him that is sanguine take heed lest he miscarries. 

However that affair terminates, my conduct will be unim- 
peachable. 

It was the wish of my father that I should have studied 
law. 

It was his intention to have proceeded to Spain. 

He would have done it if he chose. 

The result, if it do not equal our expectations, will certainly 
be important. 

My father has always enjoyed good health until the week 
before he died. 

There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or 
which puts man more out of the reach of accident, than dis- 
cretion. 

The reward is due to him, and it has already, or will here- 
after, be given to him. 

Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than 
knowledge. 

He did not do so, nor was he desired to do so. 



Violations of Syntax promiscuously disposed. 

I do not think any one should incur censure for being ten- 
der of their reputation. 

"Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erro- 
neously. 

He could not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 

Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which 
they are entitled. 

By discussing what relates to each particular, in their 
order, we shall better understand the subject. 

Neither of these men seem to have any idea that their 
opinions may be ill founded. 

A talent of this kind would, perhaps, prove the likeliest of 
any other to succeed. 

Eve was the fairest of her daughters. 

They slew Varus, he that Avas mentioned before. 

By observing of truth, you will command esteem, as well as 
secure peace. 



PUNCTUATION. 91 

He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them 
proper information. 

In tracing of his history, we discover little that is worthy 
of imitation. 

If some events had not fell out very unexpectedly, I should 
have been present. 

He returned the goods which he had stole, and made all 
the reparation in his power. 

He has not yet wore off the rough manners which he 
brought with him. 

I done it as well as I could. 

If thou do not forgive, thou wilt not be forgiven. 

If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act 
accordingly. 

This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, and antiqua- 
rian, were entirely destitute of breeding and civility. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to 
eternity. 

Though remorse sleep sometimes during prosperity, it will 
surely awake in adversity. 

If a man profess a regard for the duties of religion, and 
neglect that of morality, that man's religion is vain. 

They that honor me I will honor. 

Then did the officer lay hold of him, and executed him 
immediately. 

Who is that person whom I saw you introduce and present 
him to the creneral ? 



PUNCTUATION. 

By Punctuation is meant the use of certain marks or points 
to denote, as well the pause which should be made by the 
reader, as the grammatical construction of the sentence. 

The marks or points are — The Comma ( , ) ; the Semi- 
colon ( ; ) ; the Colon ( : ) ; the Dash ( — ) ; the Period ( . ) ; 
the Exclamation point ( ! ) ; the Interrogation point ( ? ) ; 
the Parenthesis ( ). 



92 PUNCTUATION. 



The Comma, 

Rule I. The Comma is never used in a simple sen- 
tence : — Exercise is conducive to health ; history is philoso- 
phy teaching by example ; he intends to go to Boston. 

Rule II. A clause inserted in a simple sentence should 
be separated by commas. This rule is of extensive application , 
and vi^ill be illustrated by several examples : — Exercise , 
especially in the open air, is conducive to health ; exercise , 
generally speaking, is conducive to health ; exercise, by pro- 
moting the circulation of the fluids, is conducive to health ; 
history, said a celebrated writer, is philosophy teaching by 
example ; he intends to go, next week, to Boston ; Solomon, 
the son of David, was the wisest of men ; I remember, with 
gratitude, his goodness to me ; they set out early, and, before 
the close of the day, arrived at the destined place ; I doubt 
whether I comprehend him ; but, if I do, I distinctly declare 
my disbelief of his doctrine ; vices, like shadows, grow great 
and monstrous towards the evening of life. 

Rule III. Important adverbs should generally be separa- 
ted by commas : — The man, however, is amiable; I con- 
cluded, therefore, to assist him ; he determined, then, to 
change his conduct ; he feared want, hence, he overvalued 
riches ; be grateful to thy best friend — formerly, the guide 
of thy childhood — now, the guardian of thy youth; finally, I 
will repeat what has been often said. 

Rule IV. When an address is made to a person, his 
name or title should be separated by commas : — It must be 
so, Plato, thou reasonest well ; I am, sir, your obedient ser- 
vant ; my son, give me thy heart ; we submit to thy pleasure, 
commander of the faithful. 

Rule V. When a sentence is composed of several 
clauses, these clauses, if simple and short, should be separa- 
ted by commas : — Exercise ferments the humors, casts them 
into their proper channels, throws off redundancies, and 
assists nature in her necessary operations. If the clauses 
are long, or divided by other clauses inserted, semicolons 
should be used. 



PUNCTUATION. 93 

Rule VI. When a sentence is composed of two members 
which may be elegantly transposed, or of which one may be 
inserted in the other, a comma may be placed between them : 

— We should obtain little applause for our best actions, if 
men understood our real motives ; the most obvious remedy 
is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men. 

Rule VII. A clause at the beginning of a sentence, and 
standing independent of it, should be separated by a comma : 

— To confess the truth, I was in fault ; the moon shining 
brightly, they began their march. 

Rule VIII. When more than two nouns, verbs, partici- 
ples, adverbs, or adjectives are used in succession, they 
should be separated by commas : — climate, soil, laws, cus- 
tom, and food have produced an astonishing variety in the 
manners and faculties of men ; in a sermon, a preacher may 
explain, exhort, admonish, and comfort; trembling, hoping, 
lingering, flying, Oh the pain, the bliss of dying ; success 
generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigor- 
ously ; this opinion may be supported by plain, cogent, logi- 
cal, and conclusive arguments. 

In regard to adjectives, this rule admits of exceptions, and 
these exceptions are mostly embraced in this rule : Adjec- 
tives should not be separated by commas except to indicate 
the ellipsis of a conjunction : — a handsome young man ; 
Maria wore a beautiful crimson silk shawl. 

Rule IX. A comma should generally be placed where a 
word is omitted : — To err is human ; to forgive, divine ; — 
the whole world must admire such heroic, invincible forti- 
tude ; — reason, virtue answer one great aim ; — from law 
arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, 
knowledge. 

Rule X. When two or more words bear upon, or refer to, 
the same subsequent word, a comma should be placed after 
each of those words : — The people feared, but they did not 
respect, their king; he was an industrious, but not an eco- 
nomical, servant ; good men are often found, not only in union 
with, but in opposition to, each other. 

Rule XI. When words are used in pairs, the pairs 
should be separated by commas : — Truth is fair and artless, 



94 PUNCTUATION. 

simple and sincere, uniform and consistent ; generosity and 
prodigality, avarice and economy, are not divided from each 
other by distinct and obvious boundaries. 

Rule XII. A clause stating time, efficient cause, motive 
or object, should be separated by a comma, especially when 
placed at the beginning of the sentence : — When he as- 
cended the throne, the kingdom was at peace ; by trusting to 
his honor, I lost my estate ; to obtain the consent of his 
father, he returned home. 

Rule XIII. When words are placed in opposition to 
each other, or are used with some marked variety, a comma 
should be placed between them : — 

Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 

Strong, without rage : without o'erflowing, full. 

Rule XVI. A clause added to a sentence otherwise 
complete may be preceded by a comma : — The standard of 
Satan was seen on high, streaming in the air like a meteor ; 
all mankind compose one family, assembled under the eye 
of one common father. 

Rule XV. The nominative case should not be separated 
from the verb, nor the verb from the objective case, by the 
use of one comma only ; but whenever an adverb or a clause 
is interposed, it may be proper to separate it from the rest of 
the sentence, by using two commas. The first following 
sentence exhibits a violation of this rule ; the last, a compli- 
ance with it. 

'^ The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to 
neglect the cultivation of the English language." 

The general, approving the plan, despatched, immediately, 
an order to put it in execution. 



The Semicolon. 

The semicolon denotes a longer pause than the comma; 
and it is used when a sentence is composed of two or more 
clauses which are long, complex, or not closely connected by 
the sense or grammatical construction. It is properly used 
in the following sentences : 



PUNCTUATION. 95 

As the desire of approbation, when it works according to 
reason, improves the amiable part of our species in every 
thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more injurious, when it 
is governed by vanity and folly. 

Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly 
affairs is not what religion requires; nor does it even enjoin 
a long retreat from them. 

Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bot- 
tom. 

Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her opera- 
tions ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that 
knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future 
generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we 
have not the least idea. 



The Colon, 

The colon denotes a longer pause than the semicolon : and 
it is used to divide clauses of a sentence which, though con- 
nected, express dissimilar ideas : — as, nature felt her ina- 
bility to extricate herself from the consequences of her guilt : 
the Gospel reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid. — 
Nature confesseth some atonement to be necessary : the 
Gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made. 

A colon is also used when a semicolon, or more than one, 
have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary : — As 
we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did 
not perceive it moving ; and it appears that the grass has 
grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the advances we 
make in knowledge, as they consist of such insensible steps, 
are only perceivable by the distance. 

And it is commonly used when an example, a quotation, 
or a speech, is introduced : — as. The Scriptures give us an 
amiable representation of the Deity, in these words : " God 
is love." — He was often heard to say : " I have done with 
the world, and am willing to leave it." When not the exact 
words, but the subtance, of a remark, is given, a comma is 
generally used : — He was often heard to say, that he was 
weary of life, and was willing to leave it. 



96 PUNCTUATION. 



The Period. 

A period is placed at the end of every complete and inde» 
pendent sentence ; and also when the initial letter is used for 
the word itself: — as, N. B. — P. S. — U. S. A. 



The Bash, 



The dash is used when a sentence breaks oflf abruptly, or 
is suddenly interrupted : as 

" Here lies the great — False marble, where? 
" Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 
The soldier, seeing the miser fall into the river, plunged 
in and rescued him ; and the miser gave him — nothing. 

The dash is sometimes used after other points to denote that 
the pause should be lengthened. 



The Interrogation Point. 

This point is placed at the end of a question, or interroga- 
tion : — as, Who will accompany me 1 It is not used when 
it is merely said that a question is asked : as, the Egyptians 
asked me, why I wept. 



The Exclamation Point. 

This point is used to denote wonder, astonishment, or 
strong emotion : — as. Wonderful are thy ways, O Lord of 
hosts ! 

What place is here ! 
What scenes appear ! 

All this dread order break — for whom 1 for thee, 
Vile worm 1 — O madness ! pride ! impiety ! 



USE OP CAPITAL LETTERS. 97 



Parentheses. 

Parentheses are used to enclose an explanatory clause 
inserted in the midst of a sentence and having no grammati- 
cal connection with it : — as, To gain a posthumous reputa- 
tion is to save a few letters (for what is a name besides ?) 
from oblivion. Parentheses and the exclamation point are 
not so frequently used as formerly. 



USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to begin with a capital letter : — 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, paragraph, and 
sentence. 

2. The first word of a quotation, when it is formally intro- 
duced, and the words exactly recited : — as, " Nathan said 
unto David : ' Thou art the man.' " 

3. The first word of every line of poetry. 

4. The appellations of the Deity : — as God, Jehovah, the 
Almighty, the Supreme Being, 6lc. 

5. All proper names : — as, Bonaparte, John, Virginia, 
Broadway, &c. 

6. Adjectives derived from proper names : — as, Bona- 
partean, Virginian, Grecian, Italian, &c. 

7. Important nouns, and especially such as express the 
principal subject of discussion. 

8. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are always 
written in capital letters. 



NOTES 



NOTE A. 

That the words called Articles are defining adjectives is appa- 
rent from the following reasons : 

Any definition, applicable to either class, considered as a class 
of words, is also applicable to the other. An article is said to be 
" a word prefixed to nouns to point them out and show how far their 
signification extends." Does not this definition include also ont^ 
two, tenth, any, this, that, and indeed all defining adjectives ? Either 
the latter therefore should be called articles, or an and the should 
be called defining adjectives. All belong to the same class ; and 
the name Adjective, is equally applicable to all, and it is more 
applicable to each and any of them than Article. 

In all languages where inflection prevails, the words called arti- 
cles undergo the same changes as adjectives to denote their agree- 
ment with the noun ; and the reason of these changes is the same ; 
they are its attendants, its appendages, not, like pronouns, its sub- 
stitutes. 

An (and of course a,) was doubtless once the same word as 
one. Ancient English authors made no difference in the spelling ; 
in their writings, it appears, as well when used where an or a, as 
where one, is now used, in the same shape — ane. — The, according to 
Tooke, is derived fi-om the same root as this and that. In many 
cases, even now, it is indifferent which is used. — The change 
effected by timOj in the form and use of these words, is not suffi- 
cient to obscure the relationship, nor to require that they should 
be arranged in different classes. Such changes, it is admitted, 
are not uncommon. 

Without adducing any more reasons, it may be asked, whether 
the first alone is not sufficient ? And it may also be asked, what 
other reason can be assigned for dignifying a and the with a dis- 
tinctive appellation, than that they are little words frequently used? 

[See Hermes, 3d edition. Book I. chap. v. p. 72 ; Book II. chap. 
i. p. 214. — Diversions of Purley, Philad. edition, Vol. I. pp. 18, 69, 
71, 85 : Vol. IL p. 49. — Webster's Diet, under the word Article.] 



NOTE B. 99 



NOTE B. 



COULD, MIGHT, SHOULD, AND WOULD. 

These auxiliaries have been considered, even by etymologists, 
the past of can, may, shall and will. That they are not is rendered 
probable by the following reasons : 

They seldom, if ever, excluding all consideration of time, con- 
vey precisely the same meaning ; the difference is like that of the 
same verb in different modes. In the case of all other verbs, their 
import, in the present and past tenses, (the consideration of time 
being excluded) is precisely the same. 

According to Webster, could is not the same verb as can, and 
does not come to us from the same language. 

According to Tooke, the noun might is derived from the third per- 
son singular, present tense, of the Saxon verb, magan. The aux- 
iliary might may have the same derivation. In an unconnected 
phrase, might never denotes past time ; we may say, he might go 
to Boston, to-day, or he might now be going to Boston ; but we 
cannot say, he might go to Boston, yesterday. The German 
mochte, the past of mogen (may), is sometimes used to express 
contingency. Possibly might is derived from that word, when so 
used. 

Shall, according to Webster, is derived from the Saxon scealan. 
Should, according to Johnson, is derived from the Saxon sceoldan. 
The latter word has the usual termination of the Saxon infinitive, 
not that of the past tense. Webster says, under shall, that '•^shoidd, 
though properly the past time of shall, is often used to express a 
future contingent event ; " and under should, that it is " the prete- 
rite of shall, but now used as an auxiliary verb either in the past 
time, or conditional present.'''' Johnson says, that " should is a kind 
of auxiliary verb used in the conjunctive mood, the signification of 
which is not easily fixed." In an independent, isolated phrase, 
should never denotes past time. 

The regular past of ivill is willed. No other verb has two forms 
of the past tense so different from each other ; the difference is 
not solely in form ; one can seldom be substituted for the other. 
The old word, woulding, is formed from would ; it is a participial 
noun, and such nouns are never formed from the past tense of 
verbs. 

Should and wotdd are not placed in the same mode as shall and 
will, the former being assigned to the potential, the latter to the 
indicative. This practice of grammarians is inconsistent with their 
opinions, and is entitled to more consideration. 

No other English verbs, regular or irregular, exhibit forms of 
the past tense resembling, or formed after the manner of, coidd, 
might, should^ an(i would, 



100 NOTE B. 

These reasons have been gathered, with little pains, in fields 
accessible to all ; more of the same purport might probably be 
gathered by exploring the recesses of northern literature. They 
must be admitted to be forcible, and common use strongly corrob- 
orates them. 

But if further search should make it evident, that these auxilia- 
ries are, in fact, the past of can, may, shall, and will, it would not 
follow that they are now properly placed as signs of a past tense. 
Shall and will were once verbs in the present tense ; they have 
been transferred to the future ; and should and would, following 
tliem, have become present. In the present tense, they have the 
same relation as before to shall and urill ; for the present is the 
past of the future. The same remark is applicable, though in a 
less degree, to can and may, and could and might. 

If these auxiliaries are actually verbs in the past tense, would they 
not naturally, when used with the indefinite of the infinitive, as 
they always are, constitute an indefinite tense ? "He intended to 
go, to-morrow " embraces past and future, and of course present, 
time. 

After all common use, the arbiter of language, must decide the 
question ; and let it be remembered, that the main question is, of 
what tense are they now the signs ? Evidence of what this com- 
mon use is may be found on almost every page of every book, but 
to save the reader the trouble of looking elsewhere, a few extracts 
are subjoined. 

Wherefore I preye to alle the rederes and hereres of this boke. 
zif it plese hem, that thei wolde preyen to God for me : and I 
schalle preye for hem. Mandeville, A. D. 1356. 

For zif a man myghte falle fi-o the erthe unto the firmament ^ 
be (by) grettere resoun, the erthe and the see, that ben so grete 
and so hevy, sholde fallen to the firmament : but that may not be. 

Ibid. 

I am come that they might have life, and that they might have 
it more abundantly. Bible. 

And Jesus said. For judgment I am come into this world ; that 
they, which see not, might see, and that they, which see, might be 
made blind. Ibid. 

Whatsoever ye would that others should do unto you, do ye even 
so unto them. Ibid. 

For this cause, we also do not cease to pray for you, and to 
desire that ye might be filled with the knoAvledge of his will ; that 
ye might walk worthy of the Lord. Ibid. 

Neither prosperity nor adversity could be borne entire and 
unmixed. Man, always prosperous, looi^Zc? be giddy and insolent r 
always afflicted, would be sullen and despondent. Blair. 



NOTE B. 101 

Would you be willing that all your actions should be publicly 
canvassed? Could you bear to have your thoughts laid open? 
Such investigation as this, sincerely pursued, might produce, to 
every man, many discoveries of himself. Ibid. 

If to suffer were, indeed, all, and no advantage flowed from it, 
then might the existence of suffering be a proof, that he who 
imlled it Avas defective in benevolence. It is a conclusion which 
we might indeed, be unwilling to admit, because, &c. Brown. 

Somerset. Ah, couldst thou fly ! 

Wanvick. Why, then I ivould not fly. Shakspeare. 

Hamlet. Now might I do it, pat, now he is praying. Ibid. 

Seyton. The queen, my lord, is dead. 
Macbeth. She should have died hereafter ; 

There would have been a time for such a word. Ibid. 

Cassius. O, I could weep the spirit from mine eyes. Ibid. 

Perdiia. Even now I tremble 

To think your father, by some accident, 
Should pass this way as you did. O, the fates ! 
How would he look to see his work so noble. 
Vilely bound up ? What would he say ? Or how 
Should I, in these my boiTowed flaunts, behold 
The sternness of his presence ? 3id. 

Wolsey, I would your grace ivould give us but an hour 

Of private conference ? Pnd. 

Think not so much where shining thoughts to place. 

As what a man would say in such a case. Buckingham. 

These islands might be wasted with fire and sword before their 
sovereign looidd know their distress. A gang of robbers might lay 
a wide region under contribution. The crew of a petty privateer 
might land on the largest and most wealthy, and riot without con- 
trol in cruelty and waste. Johnson. 

To abstract the mind from all local emotion would be impossible, 
if it were endeavoured, and would be foolish if it were possible. 
That man is little to be envied whose patriotism iwomZc? not gain 
force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow 
warmer among the ruins of lona. Ibid. 

The established practice of grammarians requires that I should 
here treat of the Syntax ; but our language has so little inflection, 
or variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires 
nor admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it ; 
and Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon t£e learned 
languages, made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has 
published such petty observations as were better omitted. Ibid. 
9* 



102 NOTE B, 

He must create a solitude around his estate, if he would avoid 
the face of reproach and derision. At Plymouth, his destruction 
would be more than probable ; at Exeter, inevitable. Junius. 

I reserve something to awe him in case he should think of bring- 
ing you before the House of Lords, I am sure I can threaten hmi 
privately with such a storm as would make him tremble even in 
his grave. Ibid. 

I do not mean to perplex you with a tedious argument upon a 
subject already so discussed that inspiration comZc?. hardly throw a 
new light upon it. Ibid. 

In such a cause, your success would be deplorable, and victory 
hazardous. America^ if she fell, would fall like the strong man. 
She would embrace the pillars of the state, and pull doAvn the con- 
stitution along with her. Chatham. 

That persons, who think confusedly, should express themselves 
obscurely, is not to be wondered at, Murray. 

Next we shall see tyrants invade every possession that could 
tempt their cupidity, and violate every right that could obstruct 
their rage. Ames. 

The advocate of a policy thus reprobated must feel himself sum- 
moned, by every motive of self-defence, to vindicate his conduct: 
and if his general sense of his official duties ivould bind him to the 
industrious devotion of his whole time to the public business,' the 
hours which he might be forced to employ for his own justification 
woiddf of course, be deducted from the discharge of his more 
regular and appropriate functions. Should these occurrences fre- 
quently recur, they could not fail to interfere with the due per- 
formance of the public business. /. Q. Adam^. 

Were it merely that we might be correctly and speedily informed 
of the proceedings of the Congress, I should hold it advisable that 
we should have an accredited agency with them, placed in such 
confidential relations with the other members as would ensure the 
authenticity of its reports. Ibid. 

I could refer to the speeches of another gentleman of the same 
general character, but I will not consume the time of the Senate 
by reading them. Webster. 

The duty of the government, at the present moment, would seem 
to be, to preserve, not to destroy. Ibid. 

Would to God, that harmony might again return. Ibid. 

I have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of dis- 
union, to see whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the depth 
of the abyss below ; nor could I regard him as a safe counseUor. 



NOTE B. 103 

whose thoughts should be mainly bent on considering, not how 
the union should be best preserved, but how tolerable might be the 
condition of the people, when it shall be broken up and destroyed. 

Ibid. 

It is not only of flippancy and rancor that we could convict this 
traveller ; in several instances, he might be shown to be guilty of 
deliberate falsehood. Watsh. 

Americans make no distinction where respect and confidence are 
abstractly due ; if, blended and compounded as we are, the case 
could be otherwise, it would not certainly be so in reference to 
Irishmen. Ihid. 

Philosophers of every age have exhibited a disposition to treat 
the hunter, the fisherman, and the herdsman as true specimens of the 
ordinary growth of the human stock. This error is like that of a 
botanist, who should estimate the size of the great magnolia tree 
by the height that it reaches in the latitude of Boston ; and should 
consider the colossal stature and glorious display of flowers and 
foliage, with which nature adorns this splendid plant in the climate 
of Florida, as artificial and monstrous. Everett. 



104 



NOTE C. 



NOTE C, 

TABLE OF THE MODES AND TENSES, 

Showing what Auxiliaries, or combinations of Auxiliaries are the Signs 
of the respective Modes and Tenses. 





MODES. j 


Tenses. 


Infini- 
tive 

has two 
tenses. 


Indicative 
has six 
tenses. 


Potential 

has two 
tenses. 


Conditional 
has two 
tenses. 


^1 

Impera- 
tive 

has one 
tense. 


Indefinite. 


to* 






could * 
might 
should 
would 




Present 




do* 


may* 

can 

must 




do* 


Present past. 




have t 1 


1 


Past. 


to have f 


did* 


may have f 
can have 
must have 


could have f 
might have 
should have 
would have 




Prior past | 


hadf 1 1 1 1 


Future. 




shall* 
will 








Future past 




shall have ] 
will have 









This table contains all the Modes and Tenses exhibited in the 
foregoing Grammar ; and it will be perceived that each tense has 
its peculiar auxUiary, or auxiliaries, or combination of auxiliaries. 
The language contains no auxiliary peculiar to the subjunctive 
mode nor to any of its tenses ; and the verb in every grammatical 
expression whatever, the ellipsis of the auxihary required by the 
sense being supplied, may, and indeed must, (with the exception 
of the past tense of the indicative mode,) have the form or mod- 
ification of some one of the foregoing tenses. Is not this a very 
strong argument, not only that the subjunctive mode is unnecessary, 
but that there is no such mode in the language ? 



* These auxiliaries or signs are prefixed to the principal verb in its primitive form. 
I These auxiliaries or signs are prefixed to the past participle of the principal verb. 



NOTE D. 105 

NOTE D. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

The folio Aving arguments are adduced to show that the English 
language has a Conditional mode. 

The auxiliaries could, might, should, and would, as they are gen- 
erall used, express or imply a condition. The modification of the 
verb, when they help to form it, is precisely such as indicates a 
difference of mode. The difference between I may noiv write and 
I might noiv ivnte, is of the same nature as that between awA) and 
amem, in Latin, 3ind f attends and J'attenrfe, in French. 

If the English language has no conditional mode, it is difficult to 
make a just arrangement of the tenses. The auxiliaries, may, can, 
and must, when used with the indefinite (present) of the infinitive, 
are properly placed in the present tense of the potential mode. 
Could, might, should, and would, when used with the indefinite of 
the infinitive, belong to the same tense as much as to any other. 
They should not be placed in a past nor a future tense, for they are 
not used exclusively in either. There is the same difficulty in 
regard to such expressions as may have loved, and might have loved. 
Both refer to past time, and may refer to the same portion of past 
time, and must be placed, side by side, in the same tense, or in 
different modes. — He may have written yesterday ; he might have 
written yesterday. — He may have written before I saw him ; he 
might have written before I saw him. — He may have written afler 
I saw him ; he might have written afler I saw him. It is true, that 
might have written seems to refer to past time more distinctly than 
may have written ; and the reason is, that might, when used with 
the indefinite of the infinitive alone, does sometimes refer to a time 
prior to the present ; and may, when so used, never does ; but it 
does not, by any means, follow that might have written always 
refers to a time pnor to another past time. 

In most grammars the potential mode is said to have a perfect 
and a pluperfect tense. Such expressions as, he may have ivntten, 
are placed in the perfect (present past) tense ; and such as, he 
might have written, in the pluperfect (prior past) tense. The plu- 
perfect is explained, correctly, " to denote past time, but as prior 
to some other past time specified." — England might have con- 
quered America, if she had exerted her whole strength at the hegin^ 
ning of the contest ; or, placing the clauses in their natural order, — 
If England had exerted her ivhole strength at the beginning of 
the contest, she might have conquered America. In this sentence, 
might have conquered does not refer to a time prior to any other 
past time specified or implied. It refers, in fact, to a time subse- 
quent to the time denoted by had exerted. Indeed, such forms of the 
verb are generally used to denote a time subsequent to a time 



106 



NOTE D. 



denoted by a verb in the prior past tense, and generally follow a 
verb in that tense : — If he had seen me, he would have spoken to 
me ; if he had desired to do it, he might have done it. Sometimes 
they refer to a time subsequent to a time denoted by a verb in the 
past tense : — If the general issued such orders, the colonel should 
have obeyed them. — On examination, it will be evident, to the 
degree that no doubt will remain, that the potential mode has 
neither a perfect, nor a pluperfect, tense, as those tenses are 
defined, and correctly defined, in grammars. May have written^ 
and might have ivritten, belong, both of them, to a tense which 
may be correctly denominated a past tense, or a past tense indefi- 
nite ; and as they are different modifications of the verb, to mrite, 
they belong to different modes. 

The principal modern languages, to which the English has a 
closer affinity than to the ancient, have either a conditional mode, 
with two tenses, or two conditional tenses. In these two tenses 
are placed those forms of the verb which are analagous to the 
English forms, ivould ivrite, and loould have written. And it is 
worthy of remark, thdit fecriverais, (French,) io scriverei, (Italian,) 
yo escrihiera, (Spanish,) and Ich wuerde schreihen, (German,) each 
conveying the same meaning as I would write, are all placed in 
one of the conditional tenses, which is not considered a past tense. 
Some grammarians call it the conditional present, some the con- 
ditional future, and some the conditional uncertain. 

The Encyclopedia Americana, in the article on the English 
language, has the following remarks, quoted from La Harpe, a 
French writer of some celebrity : " The English is still more over- 
loaded than our own (the French) with auxiliaries, particles, 
articles, and pronouns ; it has less conjugating also, and its modes 
are excessively limited. It has no conditional tense ; it cannot 
say, as in French, jeferois,firois, &c. ; but it is necessary to pre- 
fix to the principal verb one of these, / would, I must, I could, I 
should have to. It cannot be denied that these signs, incessantly 
repeated, and even equivocal in their signification, argue a deplor- 
able poverty, and have a resemblance to barbarism." 

The auxiliaries, particles, and pronouns with which the English 
language abounds, enable it to dispense with " conjugating," 
which term is evidently here used as synonymous with inflection. 
That it has less inflection than the French is not admitted to be a 
proof of its inferiority. Inflection is of no use except to express 
" added circumstances ; " and these may be expressed in another 
way — by separate words. Each method has advantages and dis- 
advantages peculiar to itself. Every language employs both 
methods ; some, one method principally ; some, the other ; and 
some, both at once to express the same " added circumstance." 
That language which employs both at once must be, it would 
seem, beyond all doubt, less perfect than that which, in the same 
case, employs one only. Thus, when some languages are used as 



NOTE E. 107 

with the added circumstance of doubt, contingency, or dependence, 
must use a conjunction, and must also change the termination of 
the verb ; the Englishman, by using a conjunction or an auxiliary 
only, accomplishes often the same purpose. When the object can 
be accomplished by inflection alone, that method may have its 
advantages ; one of the advantages of using separate words is this, 
that the speaker has generally a choice among several, differing, 
but not "equivocal," in their signification. The English, more 
than other languages, expresses added circumstances by separate 
words ; it has therefore less inflection ; but by dispensing with 
inflection it has gained more than it has lost. As to " conjugating," 
the method of conjugating the verb by using the indefinite partici- 
ple, gives the English one advantage at least over most other lan- 
guages. 

It is not denied that the incessant repetition of these signs is 
more unpleasing to the ear than the equally incessant repetition of 
the signs of modes and tenses at the end of French verbs ; and 
this, and the fact that they have not coalesced with the principal 
verb, may account for the omission of them in expressions, which 
some grammarians, on account of this omission, have assigned to a 
subjunctive mode. But it is denied that the English language has 
no conditional tense. It has two, of which could, might, should, 
and would are the signs ; and, in this respect, it has a decided ad- 
vantage over the French. By means of these four signs, ideas 
may be expressed with more precision — different shades of mean- 
ing may be more distinctly denoted — than by the use of one ter- 
mination only. 



NOTE E. 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

As this mode is omitted in the enumeration, it may be proper to 
assign some reasons for the opinion that there is no such mode in 
the language. 

It is a characteristic of the Latin language to exhibit the rela- 
tions of words, and certain modifications of their meaning, by in- 
flection ; in other words, by a change in the spelling. In the 
English language, inflection prevails so little that it'cannot be 
called one of its characteristics. In the Latin, the spelling of 
nouns is changed to denote number and case ; that of adjectives, 
to denote number, case, and gender ; and that of verbs, to denote 
number, person, mode, and tense. In the English, the spelling of 
nouns is changed to denote but one case, and that of but few of 



108 NOTE E. 

them to denote gender ; the speUing of adjectives is not changed 
to denote number, case, or gender ; and but few changes, and they 
are slight, take place in the spelUng of verbs ; only one tense, the 
past, is so denoted, and even that tense is very often denoted by 
an auxiliary. This defect, if it is one, is remedied by the frequent 
use of prepositions, pronouns, and conjunctions, and of a class 
of verbs called auxiliaries. The use of these, in the formation of 
modes and tenses, is a distinguishing characteristic of the language. 

This comparison, or rather contrast, of the two languages is made 
to show that the structure of one language furnishes no argument 
that the structure of another must be simUar ; and especially to 
show that the structure of the Latin furnishes no proof of what 
ought to be the structure of the English. In deciding any doubtftil 
question in regard to a language, reference should principally be 
had to its own prominent peculiarities or characteristics. 

Should it be said that the Anglo-Saxon, the parent of the English, 
language, had a subjunctive mode, it may be replied, that the 
structure and rules of a language are liable to change as well as 
the words of which it is composed ; that the subjunctive mode of 
the Anglo-Saxon has little resemblance to the subjunctive mode 
exhibited in most English grammars ; that the Anglo-Saxon was 
itself a compound, uncultivated, unsettled language ; and since the 
time of its formation many Danish and Norman words and idioms 
have been incorporated with it ; that these different elements, each 
modifying the others, have, after a long period, produced a new 
language different from any of its component parts, and having 
laws and principles, a structure and an idiom, peculiar to itself. 
Anglo-Saxon nouns had several cases denoted by iniEiection. Thf 
formation of 'new prepositions, derived by contraction from other 
parts of speech, has rendered inflection less necessary for that pur- 
pose, and English nouns have but one case so denoted. The 
formation, in the same way, of new conjunctions, and the increased 
frequency of the use of auxiliaries, has rendered less necessary 
what is technically called the inflection of verbs. The use of aux- 
iliaries is, in fact, equivalent to inflection. 

In order to ascertain whether the English language has a sub- 
junctive mode, it is sufficient to inquire, whether such a mode is 
necessary; whether it is in harmony with the prominent charac- 
teristics of the language ; and whether it can be shown to belong 
to it by the actual, prevailing practice of those who speak and 
write it. 

The subjunctive mode, (by which is meant a mode of that name 
exhibited in most English grammars, differing, by inflection, from 
the indicative, in the second and third persons singular,) is not 
necessary ; for doubt, contingency, and dependence may always 
be expressed by the use of auxiliaries, and of verbs belonging to 
other parts of speech, particularly conjunctions. If God afflict thee, 
repine not. This expression would, by most grammarians, be con- 
sidered proper, without supposing an ellipsis, and the verb would 
be assigned to the present tense of the subjunctive mode. But if 






NOTE E. 109 

the speaker should intend to refer to present time, his meaning" 
would be as clearly expressed by saying, If God afflicts thee, or, if 
God does afflict thee, repine not. The conjunction if is quite 
sufficient to mark the distinction between a positive and a doubtful 
assertion. If the speaker should intend to refer to something con- 
tingent or future, he might express his meaning, with at least equal 
clearness, by saying, if God should afflict thee, repine not 

Nay, more. The subjunctive mode is not only unnecessary, but 
the supposition that there is such a mode leads to the use of ob- 
scure and ambiguous expressions. The meaning of the sentence, 
If God afflict thee, repine not, is uncertain. Standing by itself, it 
may, according to the doctrine of most grammarians, refer to 
present time, or to a future contingent event. By using either 
the indicative or the conditional mode, according to the meaning 
intended to be conveyed, all obscurity and uncertainty are removed. 
If God a^ic^5 thee, repine not; if God slwuld afflict thee, repine 
not. It is doubted whether a similar expression can be cited that 
could not in the same manner be improved. Indeed, it may be 
stated as universally true, that the use of auxiliaries, wherever the 
sense admits it, increases the precision and perspicuity of language. 

The form of the verb in the subjunctive mode, as exhibited in 
most English grammars, (and it is only difference of form that 
denotes difference of mode,) is not distinguished from the form 
which it has in the indicative, in any tense but the present, nor in 
any other way than by the omission of the terminating letters used to 
denote the second and third persons singular. This manner of dis- 
tinction is not in accordance with any peculiarity or characteristic 
of the language. The modification of meaning is not denoted, as 
in the infinitive, potential, and conditional modes, by a prefix or 
auxiliaries. The remaining five tenses are precisely like those of 
the indicative. It is certainly singular that there should be two 
modes in a language, each having six tenses, and one mode differ- 
ing from the other in only the second and third persons singular of 
one tense. 

The form of the verb in the present tense of the supposed sub- 
junctive mode is always the same as that of the indefinite of the 
mfinitive, except that the prefix is omitted ; that is to say, it is the 
same as when an auxiliary is used. Is it not, therefore, in most 
cases, and in all where the expression is proper, merely the case 
of an ellipsis of some one of the auxiliaries ? Though he injure 
me, yet I will not injure him ; — supply the proper auxiliary, and 
the sentence will be grammatical and perspicuous ; — though he 
should injure me, yet I will not injure him. The verb will then 
be in the conditional mode. Where an auxiliary cannot be sup- 
plied, the verb retains the indicative form : — If thou didst love 
him, or if thou lovedst him, thou wouldst not have deserted him ; — 
and this strongly confirms the opinion that what is supposed to be a 
subjunctive mode is but the case of an ellipsis of an auxiliary. The 
auxiliaries were oflen omitted by the early English authors, 
especially the poets, even in cases where they are now invariably 
10 



110 NOTE E. 

used. The compilers of the first English grammars, who were 
probably less acquainted with the English than with other langua- 
ges, doubtless took the productions of these authors for their guide, 
and were thus led to construct the subjunctive mode ; their sys- 
tem has been followed by all succeeding grammarians, and has led 
to the omission of personal terminations in many cases where no 
auxiliary can be supplied, and where, of course, those authors 
would not have omitted them. 

The subjunctive mode cannot be shown to belong to the lan- 
guage, by referring to the prevaHLng practice of those who speak 
and write it. The illiterate do not use it. The learned do not 
invariably use it. It is a habit which sits easy on no one — a hol- 
iday dress worn with constraint, and never worn but in compliance 
witJi the precepts of a master ; and it is laid aside the instant 
those precepts are forgotten. That good writers do not use it, 
even in cases where grammarians declare it to be proper, is estab- 
lished by Dr. Webster, who, in the Introduction to his Dictionary, 
cites a multitude of examples of the neglect of it. Indeed, hardly 
any book can be examined that does not present similar examples ; 
and many books present no example of the use of it. In the strug- 
gle between the precepts of grammarians and tlie idiom of the 
language, the latter, as was right and natural, appears to have 
gained the victory. 

And here it may be proper to remark, that many expressions, 
properly assignable to the subjunctive mode, if such a mode exists, 
are not condemned as ungrammatical. It is only the doctrine, 
that the force of a conjunction, or the doubtfulness of the idea, has 
an influence upon the form of the principal verb, that is objected 
to. The idea intended to be conveyed may require that a con- 
junction, or an auxiliary, or both, should be used or understood ; 
but it does not require that the terminating letters denoting the 
second and third persons singular should be omitted. Those who 
contend for a subjunctive mode are doubtless of opinion that, in the 
expression. If thou prosper, be not elated, prosper is the whole of 
the verb ; that no auxiliary is understood, and that the influence 
of the conjunction, or the idea it conveys, requires it to assume 
that particular form : it is the contrary doctrine, that the expres- 
sion is grammatical, but not so perspicuous as it might be ; that 
the verb belongs to the conditional mode, indefinite tense ; that 
prosper retains the form of the indefinite of the infinitive ; and that 
the auxiliary, should, is understood, and ought, for the sake perspi- 
cuity, to be expressed : — If thou shoiddst prosper, be not elated. 
In some expressions the auxiliary, shall, is understood, and, in 
such cases, the verb must be considered in the indicative mode, 
future tense. Those expressions only are considered ungram- 
matical where present time is referred to, where no auxiliary can 
be supplied, and where the verb is in the second or third person 
singular, and yet retains the form of the indefinite of the infinitive : 
— If thou love thy neighbour, why dost thou avoid him .^ If Mr. 
Smith have money, why does he not pay his debts ? 



NOTE E. lit 

" Reason prescribes, whenever we are involved in difficulties 
from the measures we have pursued, that we take a strict review 
of those measures, in order to correct our errors, if they be corrigi- 
ble." — The grammarians alluded to, would doubtless say that the 
above sentence is grammatical, and that the verbs take and he are 
in the subjunctive mode, present tense. — But Burke wrote the 
sentence as follows : — " Reason prescribes, whenever we are 
involved in difficulties from the measures we have pursued, that 
we should take a strict review of those measures, in order to cor- 
rect our errors, if they should be corrigible." Having the sen- 
tence, thus Avritten, before them, the same grammarians would say, 
that the same verbs are in the potential mode, imperfect (past) 
tense ; and yet they, and all, must admit that the meaning con- 
veyed is the same, and that the time referred to is future, or indefi- 
nite — certainly not past. — Into such absurdities do fundamental 
errors lead those who adopt them. 

It is in the present and past tenses of the verb to he that what 
is supposed to be a subjunctive mode appears most frequently in 
the writings of authors who have a high reputation for purity and 
correctness of style. If he he, if he were, &c. are generally used 
by them instead of if he is, if hz was, &c. But these are not, 
strictly speaking, different forms of the same verb ; they are differ- 
ent words conveying the same meaning. Be and ivere were not 
endued with these forms for the sole purpose of being used in a 
subjunctive mode. If thou heest, (where he, though preceded by a 
conjunction, has the regular indicative termination) occurs in Mil- 
ton and Shakspeare, if not in later writers. Be is often used, in 
the Bible, to convey a certain, positive meaning. Be and were are 
yet used to convey a certain, positive meaning by the illiterate, 
that class among which peculiar, primitive idioms linger the 
longest: thou ivert often occurs, without a conjunction, in the 
writings of the best authors of the present age ; and if that is cor- 
rect English, / ivere and he ivere, used without a conjunction, must 
be correct English also. As the language has different sets of 
words, for the substantive verb, in the present and past tenses, it 
is not surprising that the custom has arisen, among scholars at- 
tached to the Latin, of using one of them in positive, and the other 
in doubtful, expressions. This custom violates no law, and no law 
but that of custom, which is not universal, would be violated by 
using them indiscriminately. Be and am, ivere and tvas, belonged 
once to the same mode, the indicative, and they belong to the 
same mode still, unless the precepts of grammarians, and the cus- 
tom they have introduced, have had the force to change an old 
law of the language, or to introduce a new one. (See the conju- 
gation of io he in the Grammar.) 

But there are different theories of the subjunctive mode, adopted 
by different classes of grammarians ; and it may be set down as 
an argument, and indeed a very strong one, against the existence 
of this mode, that those who contend for it, do not agree among 
themselves what it is. Some say that it is distinguished from th.e 



112 NOTE E. 

indicative merely by the omission of the personal terminations in 
the second and third persons singular of the present tense. This 
class is most numerous, and to confute their doctrine has been the 
object of the preceding- remarks. Others say, that the personal 
terminations should be omitted in all the tenses. Others, that the 
verb is ahvays in that mode, without regard to its form, whenever 
there is a word in the sentence, no matter to what part of speech 
it belongs, conveying the idea of doubt or contingency. Some 
call it the Subjunctive mode, from which it must be inferred that 
they consider it a mode subjoined to another mode, and dependent 
upon it. Others call it the Conjunctive mode, from which it must 
be inferred that they consider it dependent upon the use of certain 
conjunctions. 

Those who say, that the personal terminations should be omit- 
ted in all the tenses, are more consistent than those who say, that 
they should be omitted in the present tense only ; but it may be 
inquired of both classes, v/hat have personal terminations to do 
with, positive or doubtful expressions ? Why should not the 
person of the verb be distinguished in one case as well as the 
other ? The conjugations of the verb in other languages give no 
countenance to the doctrine, that doubt, contingency or depen- 
dence militate with personal terminations ; it may therefore be 
assumed that no contrariety exists in nature. Indeed, Murray, 
who says they should be omitted in the present tense, furnishes a 
decisive argument against the doctrine, when he says, that the 
potential mode is converted into the subjunctive, when a condition 
is expressed, but that, in such cases, the potential auxiliaries should 
retain their personal terminations. 

The doctrine that the mode of a verb may be determined by 
words which belong to other parts of speech, and are so placed as 
to affect the meaning of the phrase of which the verb forms a part, 
is of modern origin, and must have been adopted for the sake of 
vindicating modern languages from the aspersion that they do not 
contain so many modes, or not the same modes, as the ancient. 
But Avhither would this doctrine lead us ? Would it not require 
that there should be a negative mode, an interrogative mode, 
indeed almost as many modes as there are classes of adverbs ? 
Murray says, that the potential mode is converted into the sub- 
junctive by using a conjunction expressing doubt before it ; and 
this he is compelled to say or give up his subjunctive mode ; but 
if this be true, then there must be two subjunctive modes, which 
v/ould be properly distinguished by calling one the subjunctive- 
indicative, and £he other the subjunctive-potential mode. What a 
high superiority would this vast multitude of modes give to the 
English over all other languages ! 

The term, Subjunctive, may be appropriately used in the gram- 
mars of other languages ; it is certainly improperly applied to the 
supposed mode which English grammarians designate by it. That 
is often, if not generally, the leading mode, both in importance 
sad time. " If the general command^ the scJdier must obey j " 



NOTE E. 113 

(which sentence, if resolved after the manner of Tooke and others, 
would read thus : the general commani — give that — the soldier 
must obey.) Here the necessity of obedience depends upon the 
previous command. There is, in fact, no English mode which is 
invariably subjunctive ; those which are, in some instances, sub- 
junctive, are, in others, leading or sovereign. " Thieves rise by 
night that they may cut men's throats ;" here inay cut is subjunc- 
tive. Thieves may sometimes cut men's throats that they may 
rob and escape with impunity ; here may cut is leading, and may 
rob subjunctive. 

Apparently aware of this objection, some grammarians use the 
term, Conjunctive, thereby implying that the mode is dependent 
on the use of certiin conjunctions ; and they go so far as to give 
a list of the "conjunctions which govern verbs in the conjunctive 
mode." But they ought to go yet a step farther, and show whence 
these conjunctions derive the power of governing verbs. Per- 
haps they will say, that they mean no more than that the mode,, 
which is the subject of discussion, always does, or always should, 
follow these conjunctions ; and that it is not the word, but the 
meaning, which requires the verb to assume a certain form. But 
it is by no means true, that the conjunctive mode always does fol- 
low those conjunctions ; and to say that it always should follow 
them, is assuming, not proving, the point in dispute. In the ab- 
sence of all argument why the conjunctive mode should follow 
certain conjunctions ; in other words, why those conjunctions 
require the omission of the personal terminations — custom, even 
reputable custom, not with united voice requiring it — the idiom 
of the language forbidding it — no one, it should seem, ought 
to be censured severely for using such mode after the said con-, 
junctions as the idea he intends to convey may require. 

If stands first on the list of the " conjunctions which govern 
verbs in the conjunctive mode." The Latin, Italian, French, and 
Spanish languages have a corresponding conjunction nearly, if not 
quite, identical in import, and they have also a subjunctive, or 
conjunctive mode. Yet, in those languages, this conjunction is 
generally followed by other modes, seldom by the subjunctive. 
In English, the clause introduced by if, whether placed at the 
beginning or end of the sentence is never the subjunctive, but is 
invariably the leading clause, in sense and natural construction. 

When a verb is used in the subjunctive mode, in the Latin, 
French, or Spanish language, and the sentence in which the verb 
occurs, is translated into English, the potential mode, as it has 
heretofore been constituted, and not the subjunctive, is generally if' 
not always used. " Ut j[(gident homines surgunt de nocte 
latrones : " — thieves rise by night that they may cut men's 
throats. This shows that the subjunctive mode found in most 
English grammars has no resemblance but in its name, which is 
improperly applied, to the mode properly so named in tliose lan- 
guages. That the English has a subjunctive mode cannot there- 
fore be shown by reference to those languages. Indeed tlie sup- 
10* 



114 NOTE E. 

posed English mode called the subjunctive has not a single char- 
acteristic of a subjunctive mode. There are, in all languages, 
what may be properly called subjunctive expressions, or subjunc- 
tive clauses. Most languages have a peculiar termination for the 
verb in those clauses ; the English has not, but, as in other cases, 
makes use of auxiliaries. 

It is a strong, if not conclusive, argument against the existence 
of a subjunctive mode in the English language, that such combina- 
tions of the verb as should love do not belong to the potential 
mode, nor to the subjunctive mode as grammarians have constitu- 
ted it. They do not belong to the potential mode, for that mode 
has no tense in which they can with propriety be arranged. Place 
them in the subjunctive mode, and it becomes necessary to place 
there also such combinations as should have loved, which would 
completely disorganize and break it up. There must be, there- 
fore, some other mode, in which such combinations may be prop- 
erly placed. That mode is the conditional mode of tliis grammar. 
To the five modes herein exhibited, the subjunctive mode not 
being included, every grammatical expression in the language 
may he assigned,^ without the slightest violation of propriety, com- 
mon sense, or the idiom of the language. Now Murray says that 
the present tense of the subjunctive mode should be used only 
when the auxiliary should can be supplied without altering the 
sense, and that the other tenses of that mode are like the same 
tenses of the indicative. Transfer that tense to the conditional 
mode, where it undoubtedly belongs, and the same effect must be 
produced as by striking out the first section of a bill — it destroys 
the mode. Or if that tense (should) be permitted to stand in both 
modes — in one called the present tense with a future significa- 
tion, and in the other the indefiniie tense with an indefinite signifi- 
cation — it must be for the purpose merely of saving the subjunc- 
tive mode, without any other argument in its favor than the theory, 
that certain conjunctions sometimes govern verbs in that mode — 
in other words, that those conjunctions constitute a mode — a 
theory which has dicta in abundance, but nothing else, to sup- 
port it. 

Several grammarians have denied that the English language 
has a subjunctive mode ; but to none of them, it is believed, did it 
occur that it has a conditional mode. Not offering this argument 
to support their opinion, it is not surprising that they made no 
more converts. Without a conditional mode, there is an apparent 
necessity for a subjunctive, or a conjunctive, mode ; with it, there 
is none. 

For the reasons, therefore — that the subjunctive mode exhib- 
ited in most English grammars is not a modification of the verb, 
nor distinguished from the other modes in any of the ways by 
which modes are distinguished fi"om each other ; that it is entirely 
unnecessary, and even injurious ; that it is inconsistent with the 
idiom and peculiar characteristics of the language ; that common 
use does not sanction it ; that grammarians differ in regard to its 



NOTE F. 115 

name, definition, and formation ; that it has no resemblance to the 
subjunctive mode of those languages from which it derives its 
name, nor any of the characteristics which its name implies ; that 
the only tense in that mode, in which, according to most grammar- 
ians, it differs from the indicative, belongs in fact to another 
mode, the conditional ; that the arguments in favor of it lead to 
absurdities, while by rejecting it, absurdities are avoided or re- 
moved, and a regular, rational, consistent, and complete system of 
conjugation is presented ; — for these reasons the author believes 
that no such mode exists in the language, and has therefore omit- 
ted it. 

[See Hermes, Book I. chap. viii. — Diversions of Purley, Philad. 
edition, Vol. I. pp. 74, 84, 154, 285, 427 : Vol. II. p. SM.— Mur- 
ray's Grammar, chap. v. sections 3, 4, 8, 9 ; pages 60, 64, 76, 78, 
90, 95 : Rule XIX. p. 194-199. The pages referred to in Mur- 
ray, are those of the 8vo edition. New York, 1814. The same 
remarks may be found in the common 12mo editions, in the sections 
and rule cited.] 



NOTE F. 

NAMES OF THE TENSES. 

In the foregoing Grammar, new names have been applied to 
several of the tenses. It is hardly possible that any one, who, 
divesting himself of the prejudices of education, should bestow the 
least attention upon the subject, could doubt that a reform in this 
respect is desirable. The nomenclature of the tenses is indeed 
miserably faulty. Different grammarians apply different names to 
the same tense ; and several of the tenses have inappropriate 
names, their natural and common import being entirely different 
from the meaning intended to be conveyed. Better would it be 
that the tenses should be numbered from beginning to end, or be 
designated by arbitrary, unmeaning appellations, than that the 
scholar should b6 compelled to affix new meanings to common 
words, and use them as names of things which have none of the 
qualities or properties which the words usually describe. This is 
an unnecessary impediment in a path otherwise difficult ; and those 
Avho have travelled it must have forgotten the perplexities they 
encountered, or they would not be unwilling that it should be 
made easier to those who come afler them. 

The first tense of the infinitive mode has heretofore been called 
the present tense ; and this name has been defended by saying that 
the verb in this tense denotes a thne which is present in regard to 
the time denoted by some other verb in the sentence. The fact is 



116 NOTE F. 

seldom so ; but were it always so, it would not show that the name 
is appropriate. By the same mode of reasoning all tonses might 
be shown to be present tenses. In this Grammar, this tense is 
called the indefinite tense ; and it is so called because it exhibits, 
in the highest degree, the distinguishing characteristic of the 
mode to which it belongs, having, of itself, no reference to any 
portion of time, merely denoting being or action in the abstract, 
and referring, according to the intention of the speaker or writer, 
to any portion of time whatever. The participle ending in iiig is, 
for the same reason called the indefinite participle. It is as often 
used to denote past as present time. 

Th it past tense which describes an action or event as having 
taken place in that portion of the present period of time, whether 
long or short, which is past, has been called by some grammarians, 
the perfect, and by others, the present perfect tense. The term, 
perfect, is objectionable, because the leading signification of it, in 
English, has no, or, if any, but very slight reference to time ; and 
in naming tenses, there is an evident propriety in using such 
words only as refer exclusively to time. The obvious signitication 
of perfect tense is, that the tense is complete, entire, not defective ; 
in a much less common acceptation jser/ecY may refer to a period of 
time which is ended, but that cannot be its meaning as it is here 
used ; and when the learner is told that he must understand the 
word perfect to mean done, finished, accomplished, and must apply it 
to the act or event, he has a right to complain that it is used in this 
uncommon acceptation, and he may well inquire why the gram- 
marian applies it to the tense while he must apply it to the act, and 
why it is not equally, and even more, applicable to the other past 
tenses, which describe actions long since done and finished. The 
author speaks here from the recollection of the difficulty which he 
experienced in his youth, in associating, in his memory, this name 
with the tense which it was used to designate. To this tense, the 
compound term, present past, has been applied, in this Grammar; 
and that name has been chosen because both words express time, 
and time only ; because the tense is a compound tense ; and because 
the name is exactly descriptive of the formation, and also of the 
import and use, of the tense. It is formed by the union of the 
present of " to have " and a past participle ; and it is used to de- 
scribe actions or events which must have taken place in that 
portion of the present period of time which is past : or, to use the 
language of a reviewer, it " expresses past time terminating in the 
presenV Indeed the tense is never used without some reference to 
present time. 

While that past tense, which is used to describe actions or 
events finished and accomplished in a period of time not ended, is 
called the perfect tense ; that past tense, which is used to describe 
actions or events finished and accomplished in a period of time alto- 
gether past and ended, is called the imperfect tense. No name 
could be more inappropriate. " In the beginning, God created the 
world : " — is the time here denoted, or the act described, in any 



NOTE F. 117 

respect imperfect ? — The name, past tense, is the only proper 
name that can be applied to it ; the addition of indejinitt is no 
othenvise objectionable than as it adds nothing to the idea. 

The other past tense is generally called the pluperfect tense — 
that is to say, the more than perfect tense. Objections to the word 
perfect have been stated above ; and more than perfect is more im- 
proper. The name, prior past, which is used by Dr. Webster, is 
descriptive, appropriate, and liable to the feAvest objections. 

The names perfect, imperfect, and pluperfect are copied from 
Latin grammars. If applicable to the Latin past tenses, they can 
not, of course, be applicable to the English ; for the leading sig- 
nification of perfect is not the same in both languages, and there is 
not a perfect correspondence, in every case, between the tenses 
to which the same name is applied. Transferring Latin names 
of Latin tenses to English tenses is like — nothing else for its 
absurdity. 

The tAvo future tenses have been styled by grammarians, the 
frst fat'ire, and the second future, tense. These numbers are 
merely descriptive of the usual order of their location in the table 
or paradigm. If regard should be had to the order of location 
usually assigned them when used together, or to the order of the 
times denoted, the numbers ought to be reversed : — After you 
shall have learnt your lesson, you shall recite it. — In this Grammar, 
that tense, which has been called the first future tense, is called the 
future tense, simply, no qualification being necessary or proper. 
The other, which refers to a time that is futire, in regard to the 
present time, and past, in regard to another specified tima, is called 
the future past tense ; and this name may be defended by the same 
reasons as present past ; that is to say, it is exactly descriptive of 
the formation and use of the tense. * When these names first 
meet the eye, they certainly appear a singular combination of 
words ; and this is an objection of some weight ; but it is pre- 
cisely such a combination as the tenses themselves present. After 
a short use of them, this singularity, it is probable, would cease to 
present itself to the mind, and they would come to be considered 
merely as apt and descriptive names. The inconvenience, if any, 
would be temporary, and much less than that occasioned by the 
inappropriate names now in use, which few scholars can ever 
apply, when they meet with the tenses out of the paradigm, with- 
out a vigorous effort of the memory. 

Some reasons in defence of tlie arrangement and names of the 
tenses of the potential and conditional modes, have been given 
in the note on the conditional mode. It may be thought that the 
name, indefnite tense, ought to be applied also to tlie first tense of 
the potential mode, which is often used to express general truths 
or maxims, and which may be used to refer to future as well as 



* Since writing this note, the author has seen the " Grarnmaire desGrammaires," 
a work which has received ihe sanction of the French Academy. The correspoud- 
ing French tense is therein called the "/utur pa-ise." 



118 NOTE F. 

present time. It was not so applied because that name is more 
applicable to the first tenses of the infinitive and conditional 
modes, which may be used to denote past, present, or fiiture time ; 
and to apply the same name to tenses not exactly similar, might 
tend to mislead or embarrass the learner. That tense, besides, is 
not used with greater latitude than the present tense of the indic- 
ative mode. 



USE OF THE TENSES, 

In the following supposed letter, all the tenses in the language 
are introduced, and remarks upon the use of some of them are 
subjoined. The best writers do not attend, with sufiicient care, 
to the use of the tenses. 

" It is now the first of June, and the country around me exhibits 
a most beautiful appearance. I have this day heard that the em- 
peror, with his army, arrived at Milan, on the 15th ult. He there 
learned that the Austrians, under the Archduke Charles, had left 
that place, on the preceding day, directing their march towards 
Rome. Great men possess (1) the power to determine, instantly, 
in any unexpected emergency, what course they should pursue. 
Bonaparte marched immediately towards Vienna. He ivill capture 
that city, and after he shall have captured (2) it, he urill proceed to 
Rome, give battle to Charles and defeat (3) him. The Archduke 
ought to have joined his other army under the walls of Vienna. 
After he had joined (4) it, his strength would have been (5) superior 
to that of Bonaparte, and he might have saved the capital and him- 
self. I cannot account (6) for his folly. He must have known, (7) 
before he left Milan, that either of his two armies alone, ivas 
weaker than his enemy, and he should have endeavoured (8) to unite 
them. Bonaparte's good genius appears again to have confounded 
liis adversary. — Show this letter, as soon as you receive (9) it, to 
my friend, Mr. Smith. He may have been led, by my last, to enter- 
tain erroneous expectations. It was my advice then that he should 
purchase (lOj all the cotton which he might have funds to pay for; 
it is my advice now that he should sell (11) all that he may have 
on hand. — I may write (12) to you again, next week, but can 
promise (13) nothing. I shall not ivrite unless I hear (14) some- 
thing new ; my other avocations urill not permit me, for some time 
hereafter, to write (15) letters of mere ceremony or friendship." 

1. An instance of the use of the present tense to express a gen- 
eral truth or maxim, not restricted to present time ; to determine, 
and should pursue, are also used indefinitely. 



NOTE F. 119 

2. Shall have captured here denotes a time future in regard to 
the date of the letter, and past in regard to the time denoted by 
toill proceed, or by the word, after. The mind is apt to consider 
the time denoted by adverbs of time as present^ and to regulate 
the tenses accordingly. Upon this principle, has captured might 
have been used in this place, but shall have captured is more 
proper. 

3. Here give and defeat are in the future tense, loill being under- 
stood before both. It is an advantage which languages, using 
separate words as the signs of tenses, possess over those in which 
the tenses are denoted by inflection, that in the former the signs 
may often be omitted, without injury to the sense, and thus the 
frequent recurrence of the same sound may be avoided. But this 
advantage, like all others, is accompanied with an evil, which is, 
that these signs are sometimes omitted when they ought not to be. 
To this omission of auxiliaries may be attributed the subjunctive 
mode of grammarians, and also much of that want of precision 
and perspicuity which has been attributed to the language. 

4. This tense was used because it was to be followed by a de- 
pendent past tense relatively future. 

5. This is evidently not a pluperfect, or prior past, tense, as most 
grammarians consider it. 

6. This is evidently a present tense. It has been contended, 
that tenses, so formed, are future tenses. 

7. The time here denoted is evidently prior to the past time 
denoted by left ; yet in most grammars this is called the perfect, 
(present past) tense. 

8. If any precise point of time is here referred to, it must be 
cotemporaneous with that denoted by mv^t have known ; and yet, 
according to most grammarians, these two forms belong to differ- 
ent tenses of the same mode. 

9. An instance of the use of the present tense after an adverbial 
phrase denoting time. The present-past tense is sometimes used 
in such cases ; here, shall have received would have been equally 
proper, and perhaps more so. See reference 2. 

10. Here a past time relatively future, and extending indefi- 
nitely into the future, is denoted. 

11. Here the same form of the verb refers to future time only. 

12. An instance of the use of the present tense of the potential 
mode referring to the future. 

13. Here the same tense has no i-eference to the future. 

14. Is not hear in the conditional mode, indefinite tense, should 
being understood ? 

15. Let the reader note the several instances of the use of this 
tense, and determine what appellation it should have. It may be 
used in connection with all the tenses. 



120 NOTE G. 



In the following sentences, the verb in Italic characters ex- 
presses the cause or antecedent of the action described by the 
preceding verb, and is therefore put in a past tense : 

" It lightens as though the air were ten thousand furnaces." 

The ship sails as though she were too heavily laden. 

He walks as if he was lame. 

He walks as if he had been wounded. 

In the last sentence, the prior past tense is used to denote that 
an interval must have elapsed between the wounding and the 
walking. 



NOTE G. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

Many of the conjunctions are probably derived from verbs. If 
came, doubtless, from the verb give, in the Anglo-Saxon, gifan, 
formerly written, in the imperative mode, gif. " If he is wrong, 
you must be right," would once, probably, have been expressed 
thus — " Gif (give, grant, admit) that he is wrong, you must be 
right ; " or thus, " he is wrong — give that — you must be right." 
Even now, we frequently hear, and sometimes see, that after if. 
Some grammarians, therefore, contend that if is still a verb in the 
imperative mode. But derivation is not alone to be regarded in 
determining to what class words belong ; the present use of them, 
the office they fill and exercise, is the true criterion. So long as 
gif W3.S used only as a verb in the imperative mode, such expres- 
sions as the following could not have occurred : — She doubts if 
two and two make four ; the sea appears as if it were on fire ; 
tell me if these things are so ; — but such expressions are now 
common, and it would require some pains and time to unAvind and 
reconstruct them in such manner as to show that if has a right to 
be considered, in all cases, a verb. " Once an Englishman, always 
an Englishman," may be good law at Westminster Hall, but, once 
a verb, always a verb, is good law nov/here. Tried by the test 
of derivation, though, unless, and, yet, with, and but are verbs ; tried 
by the test of present use, they belong to other and different 
classes. Through, according to Tooke, is probably derived from a 
word signifying door, and out from a word signifying skin ; yet no 
grammarian ventiu-es to caU them nouns. 



ADDITIONAL NOTES. 121 

The difference in the nature and use of words admits and re- 
quires that they should be classed ; and it is important that the dis- 
tinction between the classes should be well understood ; but there 
are many Avords which belong, sometimes to one class and some- 
times to another ; often a word, the mode of using it being changed, 
is transferred from one class to another ; and sometimes the same 
word hovers for a longtime upon the borders of two classes. Thus, 
star, he, honest, strike, joyfully, from, and, and alas, differ essen- 
tially from each other, and should be placed in different classes ; 
in the sentence, " I fear my God, and have no other fear," /ear is 
in the beginning a verb and in the end a noun, and discourse 
abounds with similar instances ; if, though, with, and unless, are 
instances of the transfer of words from one class to another ; and 
concerning, except, save, provided, &c., are, in some of the uses to 
which they are applied, now hovering upon the borders of two 
classes. During was once an indefinite participle derived from the 
verb, to dure ; but the verb has become obsolete, and no reason 
can be assigned why during might not now be considered a prep- 
osition, especially in such expressions as the following : — He en- 
listed to serve during the war ; man, during his sojourn upon 
earth, enjoys more than he suffers. It is altogether impossible to 
confine words to their native classes ; it may be best, however, to 
do so, until, by the law of the land, they shall have gained a settle- 
ment elsewhere. 

This latitude in the use of words, without changing their form, 
is alio Ave d in our language more, perhaps, than in any other. It 
is upon the whole an excellence, but it is attended with some in- 
conveniences, and among them is the difficulty, to which it some- 
times gives rise, of determining to what class a word belongs. But 
this difficulty is not of great importance ; deciding wrong, in cases 
where there is room to doubt, will seldom lead to any other error. 



ADDITIONAL NOTES. 

PRONOUN. 

Rs, the possessive of it, is seldom if ever used. It is too small 
a word to be used alone and emphatically. The word Us, which 
is so often met with, is a defining adjective, and is always accom- 
panied by a noun expressed. 

In the following expressions, mine, thine, his, and its are in the 
possessive case : 

Our father has sent a book for each of us ; this is mine and that 
is thine. 

11 



122 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 

The sun and the candle give forth their light freely ; but while 
his is diffused throughout the universe, its can scarcely illuminate 
a chamber. — In such cases, the illiterate use the word his^n for his ; 
and it is to be regretted that the language has not a word, spelled 
differently from all others, to be used as the possessive of he. 

In the following expressions, mine, thine, his, and its are defining 
adjectives, or, as some grammarians call them, pronominal adjec- 
tives, mine and thine being used for my and thy, for the sake of 
euphony. 

"If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out." "I kept myself from 
mine iniquity." " The fool saith in his heart," &c. " Every tree 
is known by its fruit." 

Some grammarians deny that pronouns have any possessive 
case, and assert that mine, theirs, &c. are nouns ; for, say they, 
these words often stand as the nominatives of verbs, as in the fol- 
lowing sentence : — Our interest has been consulted ; theirs now 
requires our attention. — But it is difficult to believe that theirs is 
a noun, for of what is it the name ? And it comes within the 
definition of a pronoun, for it is used to prevent the repetition of 
the noun, interest ; and it moreover expresses the idea of possession 
as distinctly as any word can. That it is used as the nominative 
of a verb will not be considered conclusive, when it is recollected 
that it belongs to a refractory and obtrusive class of words, many 
of which hold more offices than one. Thus, who, whoever, &c. 
may each govern two verbs, one as an antecedent and the other as 
a relative ; and what is often, at the same time, agent and object, 
nominative and objective. Pronouns are in fact exceedingly 
troublesome to grammarians, who find it difficult to assign them 
proper places in the ranks, and to keep them there. The author 
has been obliged to cashier a large number, which would not stand 
for nouns, except when the nouns were near, and ready to take a 
station by their sides. And any adjective will do that. 



PASSIVE VERB. 



Teachers, accustomed to the passive verb of the Latin, and ta 
what is called the passive verb in other Enghsh grammars, may 
not easily become reconciled to the rejection, in this granrniar, 
of the passive as a class of verbs. But let them consider whether 
was loved is any thing more than a way, manner, or mode of con- 
jugating the verb to love ; or whether it is any thing else than a 
modification of that verb, in the same sense that have loved, or had 
loved, is a modification of it. And let tliem consider also whether 



ADDITIONAL NOTES. 123 

the use of the verb to be and a past participle constitutes a distinct 
class of verbs any more than the use of the same verb and an in- 
definite participle. If was loved is a diifferent verb from to love, is not 
was loving also a different verb from either ? The English language 
has either three classes of verbs, to which to love, and all transi- 
tive verbs belong, or it has but one. It must be remembered that 
no English verb is used exclusively in the " passive voice." Has 
not a blind attachment to the Latin, one of the most perfect of all 
languages, misled many writers on English grammar, and greatly 
retarded the improvement of the language ? The division of 
English verbs into active, passive, and neuter is an error which 
may be traced to this source. 



OUGHT. 

In the body of the work, no remarks were made upon the verb, 
ought. Murray represents it as having a present and an imperfect 
(past) tense, and as having the same form in both. The fact is, 
it has no past tense. In regard to tense, or time, it resembles could, 
might, should and would, its signification being unfixed and indefi- 
nite. It requires a verb in the infinitive after it ; and if present or 
future time, or a future in regard to a specified or implied past 
time, is intended to be denoted, the indefinite of tlie infinitive must 
be used : — He ought to go ; he ought to go to-morrow ; the king 
said yesterday that the troops ought to march immediately. If past 
time is intended to be denoted, the past of the infinitive must be 
used : — the troops ought to have marched yesterday. Substitute 
any of the above auxiliaries for ought, and omit the sign of the 
infinitive, and the resemblance will be seen. In oug/it to have 
marched, and in should have marched, the only word which dis- 
tinctly refers to past time is marched. 



The author has now finished his labors ; or, to speak more prop- 
erly, has arrived at the termination of a busy relaxation from labor, 
during which he has amused himself with nouns, verbs, and con- 
junctions as the entomologist amuses himself with beetles and but- 
terflies, the botanist with shrubs and flowers, and the mineralogist 
with mica and quartz. But not less than they — perhaps even 
more than they — has he had utility in view. Accustomed to hear 



124 ADDITIONAL NOTES. 

his own language spoken of as semi-barbarous, and destitute of 
symmetry and regularity ; seeing it in fact so exhibited in the 
grammars which profess to teach its construction and rules ; and 
believing that a language formed and spoken by a people superior 
to all others for their reasoning faculties ; for the elegance and 
sublimity of their poetry ; and for the splendor of their eloquence, 
must be free from the defects imputed to it, he determined to as- 
certain what were its rules, construction, principles, and laws, by 
consulting and folloAving, not only the examples of the best English 
writers, but also reason and common sense, which always have a 
controlling influence in the formation of language ; and he hoped 
that he should be able to furnish a manual which would teach the 
scholar what he need not afterwards forget, and remove some of 
the obstacles to the improvement of the language. Whether he 
has succeeded or not, probably few will inquire, and of those who 
do, most will probably condemn as soon as they perceive that 
terms are made use of not found in Adams, and rules and princi- 
ples laid down not found Lowth, Murray, or Webster. He sub- 
mits the book to the criticism of those who deem it important that 
whatever is taught should be correct, and feel disposed to' decide, 
not as authorities, but as arguments, preponderate. 



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